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UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA , . ^f : : 

HISTORY OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL 
EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



BY 

THOMAS EVERETTE COCHRAN 



A THESIS 

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School in 

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for. 

THE Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 



PRESS OF 

THE NEW ERA PRINTJNG COMPANY 

LANCASTER, PA. 



1921 






\ 1\. 






DEDICATED TO 

THE FAITHFUL SCHOOL TEACHERS 

ADMINISTRATORS AND SUPERVISORS 

OF FLORIDA 



PREFACE 

Since 191 1, when I went to one of the colleges of Florida 
as professor of Education, I have been very much interested 
in the public-school system of that State. In 1916 I began a 
detailed study of its origin and growth, which has resulted in 
the preparation of this monograph. In making this investi- 
gation, my point of view has been that of a student of education 
and educational conditions; and my purpose, to give an account 
of what has been accomplished in such a way that it will lead 
to a better understanding of present-day problems. The work 
has been prepared with the hope that it may be of real service 
in promoting public education in Florida. If, in only some 
small way, it will do this, I shall be more than gratified. 

The material for a study of this nature is found in a wide 
range of sources, and I gratefully record here my heavy ob- 
ligation to those — -too numerous to mention by name — who 
have aided me in collecting this material. I also desire to ex- 
press my thanks and acknowledge my great indebtedness to 
Dr. Frank P. Graves, of the University of Pennsylvania, and 
Dr. W. N. Sheats, state superintendent of public instruction in 
Florida; to the former for first stimulating my interest in the 
history of education, and to the latter for furnishing me with 
much valuable information, and to both for constant encourage- 
ment and scholarly advice given throughout the entire investi- 
gation. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the many helpful 
suggestions from Professors Arthur J. Jones and Thomas 
Woody, of the University of Pennsylvania, who have read the 
entire manuscript and commented upon it to its betterment. 
They who have aided me, however, are in no sense responsible 
for the opinions expressed, nor for any errors that may appear. 
March 7, 1921. 

T. E. C. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter I. Rise of the Public School in Florida i 

I. First Attempts at Public Education i 

A. Introduction i 

B. Florida Education Society i 

C. The Educational Society at St. Augustine 2 

D. Educational Status of St. Johns and Mosquito 

Counties 2 

E. Condition of Education in the Territory 3 

F. Provision for a Manual-Labor School at Talla- 

hassee 3 

G. Early Educational Legislation 5 

1. Congressional Act of 1-29-1827 5 

2. Legislative Act of 11-20-1828. 6 

3. Legislative Act of 2-11-1832 6 

4. Legislative Act of 2-15-1834 6 

5. Legislative Act of 12-26-1835 7 

6. Legislative Acts of 1836 and 1837 7 

7. Legislative Acts of 1839 8 

8. Legislative Acts of 1843 and 1844 8 

9. Legislative Acts of 1845 9 

H. Legal Organization of the School System in 1845 . 10 

L Actual Gains to Public Education (i 822-1 845) . . 11 

Summary 13 

Chapter IL Rise of the Public School in Florida — 

Concluded 1 5 

n. Beginnings of the Public-School System 15 

A. Constitutional and Legal Provisions 15 

1. Constitution of 1845 15 

2. Legislative Acts of 1847 and 1848 16 

3. School Legislation of 1849. 16 

4. Legislative Acts of 1850 and 185 1 18 

5. School Law of 1853 19 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

B. Results Actually Achieved (1845-1868) 22 

1. Educational Accomplishment prior to 1861 . . 22 

a. Regarding Schools and School Enroll- 

ment 22 

b. Regarding Administrative Organiza- 

tion and Financial Support 24 

c. Regarding Popular Interest in Educa- 

tion 26 

2. Educational Accomplishment (1861-1868).. 27 

C. Negro Education 28 

1. Negro Education prior to 1865 29 

2. Schools Conducted under the Auspices of 

Certain Northern Benevolent Associations. 29 

3. Legal Provision for Negro Education 29 

4. Schools Conducted under the Auspices of the 

State 30 

5. Educational Accomplishment 31 

Summary 32 

Chapter III. Establishment of the Present Public- 
School System. 34 

I. Constitution of 1868 34 

A. Article on Education 34 

B. Its Provisions for School Organization 35 

C. Its Provisions for School Support 36 

II. School Law of 1869 36 

A. Its Provisions 36 

1 . Respecting Administrative Organization .... 37 

a. The State Board of Education 37 

b. The Superintendent of Public Instruc- 

tion 38 

c. County Boards of Public Instruction. . 39 

d. County Superintendents of Schools... 40 

e. Local School Trustees 41 

2. Respecting the Environment and Equipment 

of the Schools 41 

3. Respecting the Teaching Force 42 

4. Respecting the System of Public Instruction. 43 

5. Respecting the Support of the School System. 44 



CONTENTS ix 

B. Some Weaknesses in the Law 46 

C. The People's Reception of the Law 46 

D. The Law in Operation 47 

Summary 47 

Chapter IV. Work of the Public-School System 

(1868-1884) 49 

The Educational Situation in 1868 49 

The Educational Revival under Chase (1868-1870) 50 

Hindrances to Universal Education 53 

Means of Support for the Public Schools 53 

Educational Organization and Administration 58 

The School Plants 65 

The Courses of Study (yj 

Textbooks Used 69 

The Population 7^ 

The Teaching Staff 7^ 

Evidences of Educational Progress 76 

Summary 78 

Chapter V. Progress of the Public-School System 

(1884-1892) 79 

L Constitution of 1885 79 

A. Article on Education 79 

B. Changes in the Educational System 81 

IL School Law of 1889. 84 

A. Changes in Administrative Organization 85 

B. Changes in School Support 87 

C. Result of the Changes 87 

III. Progress of the Public-School System 88 

A. Financial Support of the School System 88 

B. Educational Organization and Administration 90 

C. The School Plants 92 

D. The Courses of Study 94 

E. The Teaching Force 95 

F. The System of Public Instruction 102 

Summary 109 

Chapter VI. The Public-School Awakening (1892- 

1920) Ill 

I. The System of Public Instruction iii 



X CONTENTS 

A. Elementary-School Instruction 112 

1. The Extension of Elementary Instruction. . . 112 

2. Means Used in the Extension of Elementary 

Instruction 112 

3. The Curricula of the Elementary Schools. . . 115 

B. Secondary- School Instruction 121 

1. The Extension of Secondary Education. . . . 121 

2. Means Used in the Extension of Secondary 

Education 122 

3. The Curricula of the Secondary Schools. . . . 123 

4. Present Secondary-School Advantages 131 

Summary 139 

Chapter VII. The Public-School Awakening — Con- 
tinued 140 

C. Vocational Education 140 

1. The Extension of Vocational Education. . . . 140 

2. Commercial Departments 140 

3. Commercial Courses of Study 141 

4. Departments of Industrial Education 141 

5. Industrial Courses of Study 143 

6. Departments of Home Economics 143 

7. Courses of Study in Home Economics 146 

8. Agricultural Departments 147 

9. Courses of Study in Agriculture 148 

D. Special Types of Schools 149 

1. The Extension of Special Education 149 

2. School for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb 149 

3. Reform Schools •. . 150 

4. Kindergartens 151 

E. Higher Education 152 

1. Higher Education prior to 1892 152 

2. Higher Education, 1892-1905 158 

3. Consolidation of the Higher Educational In- 

stitutions in 1905 162 

4. Higher Education since 1905 162 

Summary - 168 

Chapter VIII. The Public-School Awakening — Con- 
cluded 170 



CONTENTS , xi 

II. The Environment and Equipment of the Schools 170 

A. Buildings, Grounds, and Equipment 170 

B. Hygienic Conditions 172 

C. Textbooks Used 175 

III. The Teaching Body 179 

A. The Number, Qualification, and Experience of 

Teachers 179 

B. The Preparation of Teachers 179 

C. The Examination and Certification of Teachers. . 188 

D. The Training of Teachers in Service 192 

E. The Salaries of Teachers 196 

IV. The Financing of Public Education 197 

A. School Expenditures 198 

B. School Funds and Taxation 198 

C. Apportionment of the School Funds 200 

Summary 200 

Chapter IX. Some Factors Favoring the Recent Ad- 
vance OF Education 202 

The Growth of Population 202 

The Increase of Wealth 202 

The Growth of Public Interest in Free Schools 203 

Improved School Legislation 205 

State Aid 206 

National Aid 208 

Private Appropriations 208 

The Influence of Education in Other States 209 

Better Administrative Control and Supervision 210 

Better Educational Leadership 211 

Summary 212 

Chapter X. Conspectus of the Present Public-School 

System 213 

I. General Administrative Control and Supervision 213 

A. School Officers 213 

B. State Superintendent of Public Instruction 213 

C. State Board of Education 214 

D. State Vocational-Education Board 215 

E. State Board of Control 216 



xii CONTENTS 

F. State Board of Examiners 217 

G. State High-School Inspector 217 

H. Rural School Inspectors 218 

I. County Superintendents of Public Instruction 218 

J. County Boards of Public Instruction 219 

K. Local School Supervisors 221 

L. Administrative Unit 221 

M. Special-Tax School-Districts 222 

N. Consolidated Special-Tax School-Districts 222 

O. District Trustees 223 

P. School-Attendance Officers 223 

IL School Population and Attendance 224 

A. Age Limits 224 

B. School Census 224 

C. Separation of the Races 225 

D. Suspension from School 226 

E. Place of Attendance 226 

F. Time and Term 226 

G. School Holidays 227 

H, Meaning of School Year, Term, Month, and Day. 227 

I. Compulsory Attendance 227 

J. Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of 

Pupils 229 

III. The System of Public Instruction 229 

A. Extent 229 

B. Classification of the Public Free Schools 229 

C. Elementary- School Instruction 230 

D. Secondary-School Instruction 233 

E. Military Instruction and Training 237 

F. Vocational Education 237 

G. Special Types of Schools 238 

H. Higher and Professional Education 239 

IV. School Environment and Equipment 239 

A. Buildings and Sites 239 

B. Health Regulations 241 

C. Textbooks 241 

V. The Teaching Staff 242 

A. Examination and Certification 242 

B. Appointment and Tenure 245 



CONTENTS xiii 

C. Salaries and General Duties 246 

D. Training and Supervision 247 

VI. Revenue for the Support of Public Free Schools 248 

A. Sources of School Revenue 248 

B. Apportionment of the School Revenue 249 

C. Local Bonds and Indebtedness 250 

D. Care of the School Revenue 251 

Chapter XI. Retrospection and Forecast 253 

I. Public Education in Retrospect 253 

A. First Attempts at Public Education 253 

B. Beginnings of the Public-School System 253 

C. Inauguration of the Present System 254 

D. Progress of the System (1868-1884) 254 

E. Reorganization and Advancement (1884-1892) . . 255 

F. The Educational Awakening (1892-1920) 256 

G. Some Results Actually Achieved since 1877 257 

II. Public Education in Prospect 257 

A. Some Unfinished Tasks 257 

B. A Promising Future 260 

List of References 261 

Index 266 



LIST OF TABLES 

I. Statistics of Education in Florida for 1840, 1850, 

and i860 27 

II. Statistics of Negro Education in Florida, 1865- 

1868 31 

III. Progress of School Fund and Expenditures, 1869- 

1884 56 

IV. Number of Counties Reporting to the State De- 

partment of Education, 1870-1884 59 

V. Number of Counties Reporting Their Census Re- 
turns to the State Department of Education, 

1870-1884 60 

VI. The Number of Schools Operated and Total Value 

of School Property, 1869-1884 68 



xiv CONTENTS 

VII. Statistics Concerning School Population, Number 
Enrolled, Average Daily Attendance, Length of 
School Term and Salary Paid the Teachers, 
1869-1884 T7 

VIII. Progress of State School-Fund and Expenditures 

for Public-School Purposes, 1884-1892 89 

IX. How the Counties Taxed Themselves for the Sup- 
port of Schools during the Period 1884-1892. . . 91 
X. The Number of Schools Operated and Total Value 

of School Property, 1884-1892 93 

XL The Number of Teaching Positions Filled, 1884- 

1892 96 

XII. Total Population, School Population, Number En- 
rolled, School Attendance and Length of School 
Term, 1884-1892 108 

XIIL Growth in School Population, School Enrollment, 
School Attendance, Length of School Term, and 
Educational Status of Youth Enrolled, 1892- 
1920 113 

XIV. Progress in Providing Schools, Teachers, and Free 
Transportation for Pupils during the Period 

1892-1920 116 

XV. Progress in Public High-School Education during 

the Period 1892-1918 124 

XVI. Number of Public High Schools on the Southern 

Accredited List in Each of the States in 191 9. . . 138 
XVII. Number and Kinds of Public-School Buildings, 
Number of Rooms, Patent Desks in Use, Square 
Yards of Good Blackboards, and Value of All 

Public-School Property, 1892-1920 173 

XVIII. Statistics Relating to the Teaching Body, 1897- 

1920 180 

XIX. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 191 5- 

1916 185 

XX. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1916- 

1917 185 

XXI. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1917- 

1918 ■ 187 



CONTENTS XV 

XXII. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1918- 

1919 187 

XXIII. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1919- 

1920 188 

XXIV. Statistics Relating to the Number of Teachers At- 

tending Summer Schools and State Teachers' As- 
sociations and Taking Educational Journals, 

1897-1920 196 

XXV. Average Salaries of Teachers during the Period 

1893-1920 197 

XXVI. Growth of Public-School Expenditures since 1892. 199 
XXVII. How the Counties Taxed Themselves for the Sup- 
port of Schools, 1892-1920 204 

XXVIII. Some Achievements in Public Education since 1877. 258 



HISTORY OF 

PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION 

IN FLORIDA 



HISTORY OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION 
IN FLORIDA 

CHAPTER I 

RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 

I. First Attempts at Public Education 

The history of pubHc education in Florida may be said to date 
as far back as 1822, the year in which Florida was organized as 
a territory by Congress ; for that year every sixteenth section of 
land throughout the Territory was reserved by the General Gov- 
ernment for the purpose of aiding in the maintenance of primary 
schools.^ But for nearly a decade no popular interest in the 
matter of education seems to have been manifested, except in 
connection with some Spanish mission schools maintained by the 
Catholics. 

Florida Education Society. — On January 22, 1831, however, 
an educational society known as the Florida Education Society 
was formed at Tallahassee, with some of the leading people of 
Florida as its members.^ This was an institution arranged upon 
very much the same plan as a state lyceum, though its primary 
object" was "to collect and diffuse information on the subject 
of education, and to endeavor to procure the establishment of 
such a general system of instruction as is suited to the wants and 
condition of the Territory." Persons were admitted to its mem- 

1 Prior to this there is no record of any educational activity whatever 
in Florida. If any schools were maintained, they were probably all in the 
hands of the Catholic clergy, as the resident population of the Territory 
were largely of this denomination. 

2 The officers of this society were: David Floyd, Esq., president; Moses 
E. Levy, Esq., Dr. Edward Aiken, and B. D. Wright, Esq., vice presi- 
dents ; D. Davidson, corresponding secretary ; E. B. Perkins, recording 
secretary; Parsons O. Hays, treasurer; Joseph W. Field, Turbutt R. 
Betton, John Duval, William Williams, and Parsons O. Hays, directors. 

3. See American Annals of Education and Instruction, Vol. I (May, 
1831), p. 225; quoted from the Education Reporter of that year. 



2 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

bership by election and upon the payment of a membership fee 
of two dollars.* The society met once every three months; its 
directors, once every month.* As we shall see in the following 
paragraphs, it had considerable influence in the way of arousing 
public interest in "the sacred cause of education." 

The Educational Society at St. Augustine. — Auxiliary societies 
of the Florida Education Society were organized in various parts 
of the Territory. The most important of these was the St. Johns 
and Mosquito County Society, at St. Augustine, the object of 
which was to promote the educational welfare in the counties 
after which it was named. Like the other branches, it could ap- 
point delegates to attend the meetings of the parent society ; and 
the latter also could appoint delegates to its meetings. These 
delegates were entitled to all the privileges of membership in the 
society they were attending. Like the other branches, too, the 
St. Johns and Mosquito County Society was required to report 
to the parent society all the information it could obtain regard- 
ing the educational interests of its citizens. It seems to have 
been quite active, and to have helped considerably in awakening 
an interest in education in the counties for which it was formed.'^ 

Educational Status of St. Johns and Mosquito Counties. — A 
report of the educational society at St. Augustine gives us the 
following information relative to the state of education in St. 
Johns and Mosquito counties for 1831 : "^ 

" The board, in attending to the state of education in both counties, 
have to say that, according to the census taken last year, there are 579 
white children of both sexes under 15 years of age — 238 of which are 
under 5 — 10 in Mosquito County and 569 in St. Johns. The number of 
children in our city (St. Augustine) — the only one where a school is 
found — is 463 ; that is to say : in Castle Ward, 105 ; in Custom-house 
Ward, 168; in Hospital Ward, 87; and in Barrack Ward, 103. Of these 
there are 137 children of both sexes which attend school daily. Of the 
nine schools, there are three containing 57 children, conducted by teachers 
qualified to impart elementary instruction in the respective branches of 
education. The rest may be considered as primary schools of all sorts, 
which, from the very reduced salary their parents can afford to pay, can- 
not much be depended upon for their stability. 

" Thus we see that out of the number of 341 children, between the 
ages of 5 and 15, there are but 57 who are likely to obtain elementary 

^ Loc. cit. 

^ See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., I, 225 and II, 94-96. 

6 See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., II (Jan. 15, 1832), p. 95. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 3 

education ; 80 receive but precarious instruction ; and 204 are left to grow 
up in ignorance and its attendant consequences. From this number, how- 
ever, there are about 30 boys who have been receiving for the last 
three months two hours' daily instruction in spelling, reading, and even 
writing." 

Under the influence of the society just referred to " a subscrip- 
tion was set on foot for the establishment of a free school at 
St. Augustine," that being the largest school community of the 
district.'^ The committee having this in charge were at first 
greatly encouraged. They reported that interest in public educa- 
tion in that region was rapidly increasing. However, there is no 
evidence of the success of the attempt. The public-school inter- 
est, of which the committee spoke so encouragingly, appears to 
have soon subsided. We hear of no more attempts to establish 
a free school at St. Augustine for over two years. 

Condition of Education in the Territory. — From the report 
quoted above we also gain an insight into the educational status 
of the Territory from its cession until 1832. After speaking of 
the apathy and prejudices of the people of Florida respecting 
education, of the encouragement furnished by the educational prog- 
ress of the North, of the lack of interest in public education 
among the people of the South, and finally, of the importance of 
a system of education for a state and a nation as a whole, we are 
given this additional information on the condition of education 
in the Territory : ^ 

" But when the Floridian looks at home, the importance of a general 
system of education in a national point of view is lost sight of in the 
consideration of education in the Territory since the cession, among a 
large and increasing population, a large portion of which can neither 
read nor write, the indifference with which the want of education is 
viewed by a great majority, and the obstacles which the scattered popu- 
lation presents, rendering the establishment of even a limited system of 
common schools extremely difficult, if not impracticable." 

Provision for a Manual-Labor School at Tallahassee. — About 
this time the manual-labor schools established by Fellenberg in 
Switzerland were being strongly recommended by many educa- 
tional leaders in the United States. A committee appointed by the 
Governor of the Territory to study the conditions of the schools 

'^ See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., II, 96. 
^Ihid., 94-9S. 



4 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

of the Territory and to report to the following legislative council 
the best system of education adapted to the educational needs 
of the people strongly urged the establishment of similar schools.® 
The Florida Education Society also urged the establishment of 
such schools. In 1831, some public-spirited citizens of Tallahas- 
see, acting upon the recommendation of this committee and that 
of the Florida Education Society, decided to organize a school 
similar to those of the Fellenberg type. Concerning this project 
we find the following record : ^" 

"Five individuals have agreed, if it can be done at an expense within 
their means, to purchase a small tract of land, and form a small manual- 
labor school, somewhere in the neighborhood of Tallahassee. A teacher 
is to be employed to take charge of a limited number of pupils ; suit- 
able buildings are to be erected for the accommodation of the teacher 
and pupils, who are to board together, with as little connection as pos- 
sible with the inhabitants in the vicinity. The pupils will be required to 
devote a certain number of hours daily to agricultural and mechanical 
employments of the simplest kinds. No pupil will be admitted except 
with the consent of the teacher and each of the proprietors ; nor suffered 
to remain in the school unless he submits to its regulations. The 
studies, at the commencement, are to be confined to the usual branches 
of a good English education, including mechanics, botany, chemistry, etc." 

From a letter written by a person at Tallahassee to a corre- 
spondent of the American Annals of Education and Instruction, 
we learn that the project elicited so much interest that, in a few 
days, between six and seven hundred dollars were subscribed, 
to be paid annually, and as much land offered, in the best and 
healthiest situations, as might be needed. It seems that the people 
thought that they would soon be given the power to sell the lands 
which had been set apart by the General Government for com- 
mon schools and for a seminary or seminaries of learning, and 
that they would then have ample funds to establish a system of 
Fellenberg schools.^^ But, not obtaining this power, their inter- 
est in the movement appears to have died out. At any rate, we 
have no record as to the success of the new system. In fact, 
shortly after this the Florida Education Society ceased to exist ; 
and with it, to be sure, its branches. So, of course, the public 
interest that had been awakened in a general system of educa- 

® See House Journal, Territory of Florida, 1832, pp. 14-15. 
10 See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., II (April i, 1832), p. 239. 
" See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., I (July, 1831), p. 328. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 5 

tion soon declined. But this decadence of public-school interest 
was quickly followed by some legislation with regard to schools, 
to which we shall now direct our attention. 

Early Educational Legislation. — Educational legislation prior to 
1849 was concerned principally with the public lands which had 
been reserved by Congress for educational purposes — the sem- 
inary and the sixteenth-section lands. The laws dealing with 
these lands sought to make them a source of revenue for the 
seminaries and common schools, respectively ; and, since the 
basis of the schools was money, it seems proper that we should 
examine these laws at least briefly. Thus we shall get a better 
idea of what was attempted with respect to public education. 
In doing this, however, we shall, confine our attention to the 
acts dealing with the sixteenth-section lands, since these were the 
only lands used for public-school support. 

Congressional Act of January 2Q\ iSz'j. — But, before examin- 
ing the acts of the legislative council, let us glance at an act of 
Congress in regard to the sixteenth-section lands. ^^ As we have 
said, the Federal Government had already reserved every six- 
teenth section of land to the Territory for purposes of education. 
In making this reservation the Government evidently intended 
to create a permanent fund, to be inviolably preserved and ap- 
plied to the maintenance of public schools. As a guarantee of 
this, the Territory was restricted from the authority to sell or 
alienate these lands, except under the Government's immediate 
sanction. It was given the right only to rent them from year to 
year, the rental from each section to be used in the township 
alone to which it belonged. Accordingly, on January 29, 1827, 
Congress passed an act giving the governor and legislative coun- 
cil of the Territory the power to take possession of the lands 
reserved for the use of schools, to lease them from year to year, 
to appropriate the money arising from the rent of said lands to 
the use of schools in the township, and to pass laws for the pres- 
ervation of said lands from intrusion and trespass vmtil the 
Territory was admitted into the Union as a state.^^ The fol- 
lowing year a law was passed by the legislative council author- 
izing a lease of the sixteenth-section lands during the continu- 
ance of the territorial government. 

^- For this act see United States Statutes at Large, IV, 201-02. 
13 See United States Statutes at Large, IV, 201-02. 



6 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

Legislative Act of November 20, 1828.^'^ — In November, 1828, 
while Florida was still a territory, an act was passed authorizing 
the governor and legislative council to appoint three suitable 
persons in each and every county in the Territory, to be known 
as trustees of the school lands, to take possession of the school 
lands in their repective counties and lease them from time to time, 
to collect all moneys and pay the same to the territorial treasurer, 
and " to select on each sixteenth section a suitable number of acres 
in one body, not to exceed 20, for the erection of a schoolhouse." 
These trustees were required " to transmit a detailed statement 
of all their proceedings annually to the legislative council." 
Their term of office was to be one year or until their successors 
were duly qualified ; and their compensation, " five per cent of 
all moneys secured by bonds." 

In some of the counties this act was put into operation ; but 
in others it appears never to have been. Only five sections of 
land were reported as having been leased, and these for only a 
paltry consideration, producing a total annual rent of but $101.50.^^ 
The law was repealed four years later. 

Act of February 11, 1832}'^ — In February, 1832, a law was 
enacted repealing the foregoing act, and conferring power on 
the people of the different townships to elect, on the third Mon- 
day in December of every year, three fit persons, to be called 
commissioners of the sixteenth sections, to take charge of the 
said sections in their respective townships, with the power to 
protect them from waste and intrusion, to rent them out for 
the term of one year for " the use of schools in said township," 
and, like the trustees authorized to be appointed under the pro- 
visions of the preceding act, to " select on each sixteenth section 
aforesaid a suitable number of acres in one body, not to exceed 
20, as they may think proper for the erection of a schoolhouse." 
The compensation allowed these commissioners was " five per 
cent of all moneys collected." 

Act of February 15, 1834}'^ — In February, 1834, an act was 

1* For this act see Laws of Florida, 1828, pp. 247-48. 
1^ See message of Governor R. K. Call, House Journal, Territory of 
Florida, 1843, p. 19; also in Senate Journal, p. 22. 
16 See Laws of Florida, 1832, pp. 124-25. 
1' See Laws of Florida, 1834, p. Z7- 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 7 

passed which authorized the judges of the several county courts 
to appoint tw© suitable persons, entitled commissioners of the 
sixteenth sections, to take charge of the said sections in their 
respective counties, with powers similar to those conferred on 
the commissioners authorized by the act of 1832. Whether this 
act, or that of 1832, was ever duly executed, we have not been 
able to ascertain. Speaking of the operation of the one for 1834, 
however. Governor R. K. Call, in his message to the legislative 
council of 1843,^* said: "How far this law has been carried 
into effect, does not appear from any data within my possession, 
but I have reason to believe that, in many of the counties, at 
least, no attention whatever has been paid to it." 

Act of December 26, i8jj.^^ — In 1835 the register of the land 
office was duly authorized and directed to select and secure the 
various lands reserved by Congress " for schools, seminaries, and 
other purposes," and required to keep the different reservations 
distinct and separate in his accounts, in order that the rights 
and interests of one should not become mixed with the rights 
and interests of the others." 

Acts of 1836 and i8j/. — In 1836, by act approved February 
13,^° the territorial treasurer was charged with the duty of re- 
ceiving and demanding all money then due, or which might there- 
after become due, for the rent of any of the school lands within 
the Territory; and by an act approved February 12 of the fol- 
lowing year,-^ he was directed to seek out and prosecute all 
trespassers of any of the school lands, to get possession for the 
Territory of any of these lands that were illegally occupied, and to 
rent them out for the period of one year. He was also required 
by both of these acts to make an annual report of his proceedings 
to the legislative council. 

Neither of these acts seems to have been well executed. As 
Governor Call said,^- the nature of the duties already imposed 
on the treasurer, whose office and presence necessarily had to be 
at the capitol, rendered it almost impossible for him to give the 

18 See H. J., 1843, p. 19; also S. J., p. 23. 

19 For this act see Thompson's Digest of the Statute Law of Florida, 
1847, p. 40. 

20 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1836, pp. 42-43- 

21 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1837, pp. 24-25. 

22 See his message to the legislative council of 1843. 



8 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

attention to these additional duties which their importance 
required. 

Acts of i8jp. — The legislative council of 1839 was the first 
to undertake the actual establishment of a public-school system. 
On March 2, 1839, there was passed an act for perfecting a 
legal organization to utilize the benefits accruing from the six- 
teenth-section, or common school, lands. ^^ This directed that 
three trustees be elected in each township to care for and lease 
the sixteenth-section lands of their township, to apply the income 
to the support of common schools in that township, and, in case 
there were no common schools in existence, to establish and 
maintain them. 

On the same day the foregoing law was enacted an act supple- 
mentary to it was passed,^* entitled " An act to raise a fund for 
the education of poor children." This provided that two per 
cent^^ of the territorial tax and auction duties to be collected 
should be used " for the education of poor orphan children of 
the county to which the funds belong." The tax assessors were 
directed to take the census of the orphans in their respective 
counties and file the same in their county court for the informa- 
tion of the county. The county courts were to appropriate the 
funds annually "for the schooling of the pcor orphans of their 
county, having a reasonable regard, as near as may be, to an 
equal distribution among all the poor orphans brought to the no- 
tice of the court . . . , and having also a due regard to the most 
economical disbursement of the funds." 

Acts of 1843 and 1844. — In 1843, by act approved March 15,^^ 
the sheriffs of the several counties were entrusted with the du- 
ties which had been conferred on the trustees authorized by 
the school law of 1839, and with special instructions to look after 
the education of the poor children of their respective counties. 
On March 15 of the following year, however, there was enacted 
a law^'^ giving the electors in each township the power to elect 
three school trustees and one treasurer, these trustees being au- 
thorized to lease the school lands of their township and to apply 

23 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1876, p. 62. 
2* See Laws of Florida, 1839, pp. 15-16. 

25 By act of February 25, 1840, this was increased to ten, 

26 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1843, pp. 34-36. 

27 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1844, pp. 61-65. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 9 

the rents or profits to the use of common schools in that town- 
ship. The townships were also empowered to unite with one 
another for the purpose of holding their school lands in common. 

Acts of 1845. — On March 10, 1845, there was passed an act 
which made some changes and improvements in the school law.-* 
Among other things, it provided that " the judges of the county- 
courts of the several counties of the Territory " should officiate 
as " superintendents of common schools in their respective coun- 
ties." They were entrusted with partial supervision of the school 
trustees, and directed to perform some of the present functions 
of a county school superintendent. The trustees were required 
to make a report to the judges, on or before the first Monday in 
December of each year, on all matters committed to their charge. 
The judges were to consolidate these returns and forward them 
to the secretary of the Territory, who was to embody them in 
his report to the legislative council. 

On July 25 of that same year an act was passed-" authorizing 
the governor to select, in accordance with the provisions of an 
act of Congress approved June 15, 1844,^° other lands in place of 
any sixteenth-section lands included in private claims. He Vv^as 
also authorized by this act to obtain from the treasury of the 
United States the money to which Florida was entitled by the 
congressional act of June 23, 1836,^^ known as " An act to reg- 
ulate the deposits of public money," said money to be forever 
and inviolably pledged to purposes of education.^- Under this 
same act, the net proceeds of all escheated estates were ordered 
to be invested and the income used for the benefit of public 
education. 

^spor this act see Laws of Florida, Twenty-third Session (the last 
session under the territorial government), 1845, pp. 20-22. 

29 For this act see Laws of the State of Florida, First Session, June- 
July, 1845, p. 40. 

30 By this act the Territory had been given the power, where the six- 
teenth sections were covered by private claims, to select other adjacent 
lands, within the land district, which had been offered at public sale but 
remained unsold. For this act see United States Statutes at Large, V, 666. 

31 For this act see United States Statutes at Large, V, 55. 

32 The legislative council had been informed that Florida was entitled 
to the sum of $382,335.30 as her sliare of the surplus revenue in the 
national treasury (see House Journal, 184S, i-i>. 50-51) ; but as far as 
can be ascertained she never received any of the said revenue. 



10 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

Legal Organisation of the School System in 1845. — Summariz- 
ing the early educational legislation in Florida, we find that the 
legal organization of her school system in 1845 ni^y be briefly 
outhned as follows : 

The administration of the schools was placed in the hands of 
a board of trustees for each township, the judges of the county 
courts, and the secretary of the Territory. The trustees, who 
were elected by popular vote, were directed to care for and rent 
out the sixteenth-section lands, appropriate the revenue to educa- 
tional purposes, establish and maintain schools, and to do what- 
ever was related to the welfare of the schools in their township. 
They were also directed to report annually to the judges of their 
county the number of teachers employed in the schools, the num- 
ber of children enrolled, the various subjects taught, and such 
other information as they might think expedient. The judges 
of the county courts were to serve as school superintendents in 
their respective counties. As such they were to see that the 
sixteenth-section lands were properly cared for, that the income 
derived from them was inviolably appropriated to the use of 
schools, and to have the oversight of all matters pertaining to 
the advancement of the schools. They were also to make an 
annual report to the secretary of the Territory concerning the 
condition of common-school education in their respective counties. 
There was no territorial board of education or school superintend- 
ent. The secretary of the Territory was the only territorial 
officer with any school duties, and his work in connection with 
the schools was simply to revise the reports of the county judges 
and lay the results before the legislative council. Beyond this 
there was no provision for any centralized control or supervision 
of the schools. The administration of the schools, therefore, was 
almost entirely local, the unit of organization being the township. 

The common schools were to be sustained by the income from 
four sources — the sixteenth-section lands, the net proceeds of 
all escheated property, the funds to be obtained from the national 
treasury under the surplus revenue act, and ten per cent of all 
the territorial tax and aiJLgtion duties that might be received,^^ 

33 The Territory aN ; "Lisisted education by means of lotteries. In 1834 
Quincy Academy 4'^' authorized to raise twelve hundred dollars by this 
means (see Laws of Florida, 1834, p. 56). That same year the mayor 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA H 

the income from this last source to be used " for the education 
of poor orphan children." There seems to have been no pro- 
vision whatever for a tax for the support of schools. However, 
the income from the above sources appears to have been sup- 
plemented by tuition fees, which were charged all children except 
those of the poor; at any rate, there was no requisition that the 
schools should be free, except to the poor. 

There were no provisions regarding the erection and care 
of school buildings, the length of the school term, the branches 
to be taught, the textbooks to be used, the certification of teachers, 
and several other important matters. There was no provision 
even for the professional training of teachers, except that of an 
act approved February ii, 1838,^* making it the "duty of the 
county court, in each respective county of the Territory, immedi- 
ately upon the organization of the Dade Institute,^^ of Florida, 
to send one young man to the said institute, to be educated as 
a schoolmaster, from the county from which he shall be sent." 

Actual Gains to Public Education, 1822-1843. — Having thus 
summarized the legislation in Florida relative to the sixteenth- 
section lands for the period from 1822 to 1845, and having also 
noticed the form of legal organization that was perfected for 
utilizing the benefits to be derived therefrom, it now seems 
proper to review and take stock of the actual gains to the cause 
of public-school education during this period. 

As we have already seen, abundant legal provision appears 
to have been made for securing considerable public-school revenue 
from the sixteenth-section lands reserved by Congress for public- 
school purposes. Unfortunately, however, the laws respecting 
these lands seem never to have been faithfully executed. In fact, 
in many instances they were not even put into operation. Gov- 
ernor W. D. Moseley, in his message to the general assembly 
of 1846, said that the laws had been so poorly enforced that 
trespassers of the school lands had been enjoying, "without 
even reproach," their " ill-gotten gains." ^^ He also stated that 

and aldermen of St. Augustine were empowered to raise ten thousand 
dollars by a like device for the establishment and maintenance of a 
free school (see Laws of Florida, 1834, p. 64). 

34 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1838, p. 60. 

35 This school was chartered the same day. For the act chartering it 
see Laws of Florida, 1838, pp. 64-67. 

36 Vide H. J., 1846-47, P- 8; also S. J., p. 7. 



12 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

the money which had been received from the rent of the school 
lands had been "not only wholly useless, but what is much more 
humiliating, shamefully neglected or criminally squandered." ^^ 
It is quite evident, therefore, that very few, if any, of the town- 
ships got much benefit from their sixteenth-section lands. How- 
ever, as to the amount of money actually used for the support 
of schools, there appears to be no record. 

As we have also seen, by the close of the period a fairly 
good school law had been perfected ; but, like the other legislation 
that we have noticed, there were mxany town'^hips in which it 
was never carried into effect. As far as can be ascertained, only 
a very few strictly public schools were ever established,"® the 
principal ones being the Monroe County School,^^ located at 
Key West, and the Franklin County School ; ^° and but few of 
these were entirely free, except to the poor children. In con- 
sequence, they were probably of brief annual duration, and at- 
tended almost wholly by orphans and children of indigent parents. 

It may be asked : " Where did the children of the wealthier 
class of people receive their instruction?" Of course, some of 
them attended the common schools of Florida; but, for the most 
part, they were sent to schools of the Territory known as acade- 
mies, institutes, and so forth. And, as in the case of the common 
schools, the records of these institutions are very meager, but we 
have enough data to show their existence. It seems that they 
were mainly primary and secondary schools combined, and in 
most cases they were probably more primary than secondary. 
The leading ones, together with the date of their incorporation, 
were as follows: Leon Academy, 1831 ; Pensacola Academy, 1831 ; 
Jefferson Academy, 1832 ; Quincy Academy, 1832 ; Bethel Acad- 
emy, 1832; Marianna Academy, 1833; St. Augustine Free School, 
1834; Calhoun Academy, Leon County, 1836; Gadsden Academy, 

2^ Ibid., pp. 7 and 6, respectively. 

38 In 1840, according to the United States census report for that year, 
there were but 51 common schools, with an enrollment of only 925. 

39 This school was incorporated March 14, 1844 (see act entitled "An 
act to organize the Monroe County School," in Laws of Florida, 1844). 

40 This school was incorporated Mar'ch 15, 1844 (see act entitled "An 
act to provide for the establishment of a public school in the county of 
Franklin," in Laws of Florida, 1844). It was "for the education in 
rudimental branches of the poor children of said county." Tuition was 
free. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 13 

1837; Southern College, St. Augustine, 1837; St. Andrews Col- 
lege, Washington County, 1838; Dade Institute, 1838; Oscilla 
Academy, 1839; Maccasukie Academy, 1839; Calhoun Academy, 
Madison County, 1839; Alachua Academy, 1839; St. Joseph 
Academy, 1840; Cherry Lake Academy, 1841 ; Hamilton Acad- 
emy, 1841 ; Salem Academy, 1841 ; West Florida Collegiate 
Institute, 1844; and Leon Female Academy, 1845. 

What then were the actual gains to public-school education 
in Florida during this period? Unfortunately we have very 
little data concerning the various phases of public education. In 
fact, as Dr. A. D. Mayo tells us,*^ there appears to have been 
but little to report with regard to the result of the first attempts 
to plant the common school in Florida. And this is what one 
would naturally expect, considering the large amount of un- 
explored territory, the sparseness of the population, the lack of 
wealth, and the barbarous efifects of the Indian war waged in 
the Territory. But the history of the public school in Florida 
from 1822 to 1845 is to be understood not so much by the results 
actually achieved, such as the number of schools taught, children 
enrolled, teachers employed, and the like, as by the growth of the 
idea of universal education. Viewed from this angle, we find, 
from the number of educational societies established, the legis- 
lation passed with respect to the school lands, and the school 
law that was evolved, that by 1845 Florida had at least taken a 
step in the direction of education for the masses ; and this com- 
pares favorably with what was accomplished in any of the other 
Southern States. 

Summary 

Very little, if any, pubHc interest in education in Florida seems 
to have been manifested until 1831. That year some public- 
spirited citizens of Tallahassee, deploring the educational con- 
ditions of the Territory, organized what was called the Florida 
Education Society. The main object of this society, together 
with, its branches, which were formed in several towns in the 
Territory, was to diffuse information on the educational status 

41 Mayo, A. D., " The Organization and Development of the Amer- 
ican Common School in the Atlantic and Central States of the South, 
1830 to i860 " ; in the Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, 1899-1900, Vol. I, p. 491. 



14 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

and needs of the people, and to pave the way for the establish- 
ment of a general system of instruction. These societies aroused 
an interest in education seldom seen in a new and sparsely 
settled region. A number of schools were immediately estab- 
lished, the principal ones being the schools at St. Augustine and 
the manual-labor school at Tallahassee. Unfortunately the ardor 
of this progressive spirit seems to have soon subsided. In a few 
years the societies themselves ceased to exist, and we have no 
record that any others were established in their place. 

Just what was attempted with reference to public schools in 
the territory of Florida can perhaps best be seen by noticing 
the school legislation. A number of laws were passed, the main 
ones being those pertaining to the sixteenth-section lands which 
had been reserved by Congress for common-school purposes. 
The first act of the legislative council for the preservation 
of these sixteenth-section, or common-school, lands was passed 
in 1828. Other acts regarding the preservation of these lands 
were passed in 1832, 1834, and 1835. But no attempt was made 
by the territorial authorities to utilize the benefits to be derived 
therefrom until 1839, when the first school law was enacted. 
This directed that three trustees should be chosen in each town- 
ship to care for and lease the school lands and to apply the in- 
come accruing from the same to the instruction of the children. 
Several amendments to this law were made, the principal one 
being that of 1845. That year there was authorized a partial 
supervision of the action of the township trustees by the county 
judges, who were to act as superintendents of common schools 
in their respective counties. The trustees were directed to report 
annually to the judges, who were to consolidate the returns and 
submit them to the secretary of the Territory, by whom the re- 
sults were to be laid before the legislative council. 

Just what was actually accomplished by the efforts to estab- 
lish a general system of instruction in the Territory of Florida, 
no one can say, on account of the meager records we have. As 
far as we can learn, only a few real public schools were ever es- 
tablished. The chief gain seems to have been in getting the 
people to see the importance of public education. 



CHAPTER II 

RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA- Concluded 

II. Beginnings of the Public-School System 

Having noted the efforts that were made to plant a system 
of public schools in Florida, while it was still a territory, let us 
now turn our attention to a summary of the efforts made from 
1845, the year it became a state, until 1869, when the present 
public-school system was established. In the first place, let us 
examine the educational provisions of the constitution of the 
State and of various acts of the legislature. 

A. Constitutional and Legal Provisions 

Constitution of 1845. — The first constitution of Florida,^ 
adopted on the third day of March, 1845,^ had the following 
provisions concerning education : ^ 

" Section i. The proceeds of all lands that have been, or may here- 
after be, granted by the United States for the use of schools and a sem- 
inary or seminaries of learning, shall be and remain a perpetual fund, the 
interest of which, together with all moneys derived from any other source 
applicable to the same object, shall be inviolably appropriated to the use 
of schools and seminaries of learning, respectively, and to no other 
purpose. 

" Section 2. The general assembly shall take such measures as may 
be necessary to preserve from waste or damage all lands so granted and 
appropriated to the purpose of education." 

As may be seen, the constitution of Florida for 1845, like 
many of the other early 'state constitutions, gave but scant rec- 

1 For this constitution see The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial 
Charters, and Other Organic Laws (compiled and edited by Francis New- 
ton Thorpe), Vol. IL 

2 It was framed by a convention which met at the old town of St. 
Joseph, in Calhoun County, from December 3, 1838, to January 11, 1839; 
and was at once presented to Congress, but was not adopted until 1845. 
when Florida was admitted to the Union. 

3 Article X. This article was repeated almost verbatim in the con- 
stitutions of 1861 and 1865. 

15 



16 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

ognition to education. It contained only two brief passages on 
the subject; and these, Hke the early educational legislation of 
Florida, dealt almost exclusively with the public lands "granted 
by the United States for the use of schools and a seminary or 
seminaries of learning." The main object of its educational pro- 
visions was "to preserve from waste or damage all lands so 
granted and appropriated . . . ." 

Acts of 184/ and 1848. — The sixteenth-section lands, 908,503 
acres in all,* which the Federal Government had reserved — not 
granted — to Florida on its organization as a territory for the 
use of common schools, were granted to it on its admission as 
a state. The oversight and control of them, during both the ter- 
ritorial period and the first two years of statehood, was confided 
largely to the township trustees. But by an act approved Jan- 
uary 6, 1847,^ this power was placed almost entirely in the hands 
of the register of public lands of the state of Florida, an office 
established in December, 1845.'' As before, though, none of the 
sixteenth sections could be sold, but simply rented or leased. 
Now, the system of renting or leasing proved very unprofitable 
and unsatisfactory; so the legislature of 1847-48, complying with 
the recommendation of Governor W. D. Moseley,'^ memorialized 
Congress for permission to sell the said lands, on condition that 
the proceeds thereof would be invested in some permanent fund, 
and the proceeds of such fund applied to the purpose for which 
they were granted to the State, and to no other use or purpose 
whatever. This permission being granted, the following legis- 
lature, by an act approved December 28, 1848,^ directed that the 
sixteenth-section lands be sold by the register of public lands, and 
that the proceeds thereof be paid into the treasury of the State for 
the establishment of a permanent state common-school fund — 
the first attempt to make public education a state affair. 

School Legislation of 184P. — The first law, after the admission 
of Florida to the Union, to provide for a system of public in- 

* See The Public Domain; Its History, with Statistics (compiled by 
Thomas Corwin Donaldson), Chap. XIII. 

s For this act see Laws of Florida, 1846-47, pp. 47-49- 

6 See Laws of Florida, 1845, Chap. 54. 

■^ See his message to the legislature of 1847-48, in the House Journal, 
State of Florida, 1847-48, pp. 14-15 ; also in the Senate Journal, pp. 12-13. 

^ See Laws of Florida, 1848-49, Chap. 230. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA I7 

struction was enacted January 10, 1849.^ This law authorized 
the establishment of common schools, whose doors were to be 
open to all white children of the State between the ages of five 
and eighteen. The overhead control of the system was entrusted 
to the register of the land ofifice, who was directed to act as 
state superintendent of schools, the judges of probate, who were 
directed to act as superintendents of schools for their respective 
counties, and local boards of trustees, who were to be elected 
annually by the taxpayers of the various school districts. The 
duties of the state superintendent were: (i) to make an annual 
report to the governor; (2) to apportion annually the school 
moneys to be distributed among the dififerent counties; (3) to 
certify each apportionment to the comptroller of the State, and 
to inform each county superintendent at once as to the amount 
and date of payment of the apportionment made to his county; 
(4) to have printed and distributed to the several counties forms 
and instructions on all matters relative to the schools; (5) to 
decide appeals and controversies due to the operation of the act; 
and (6) to perform such other duties required of him. The 
chief duties of a county superintendent were: (i) to divide 
his county into a suitable number of school districts; (2) to 
apportion annually the school money received by him among the 
various districts of his county; (3) to examine and certificate 
teachers ; (4) to visit the schools at least once a year, and en- 
deavor to promote an interest on the part of all in public-school 
education; and (5) to make a report to the state superintendent 
between July i and October i of each year. And finally, the 
principal duties of the school-district trustees were : ( i ) to make 
out the tax list for their respective districts, and, when deemed 
necessary, to call special meetings of the taxpayers; (2) to ap- 
portion among the different schools the moneys received by dis- 
trict taxation; (3) to purchase or lease sites for district school- 
houses; (4) to have custody of the school property; (5) to 
make out rate bills, or tuition fees; (6) to employ teachers and 
pay them their wages; and (7) to make an annual report to 
the county superintendent regarding (a) the length of time the 
various schools were taught, (b) the amount of money received 
and expended, (c) the number of white children of school age 

9 See Laws of Florida, 1848-49, Chap. 229. 



18 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

residing in the district, on December i prior to the report, and 
(d) the number of children that attended school. 

On the day before the passage of the foregoing law, there 
was passed an act " for the increase, investment, safe-keeping, 
and disbursement of the common-school fund." ^° The aim of 
this act, of course, was to make better provisions for the support 
of the common schools. It directed that the five per cent re- 
ceived from the United States for the sale of public lands within 
the State,^^ the proceeds of all escheated estates, the net pro- 
ceeds " of all property found on the coasts or shores of the State, 
or brought into the State or its ports as wreck or derelict of the 
seas," and all other property thereafter granted for the purposes 
of common-school education, should be added to the school fund ;^^ 
that the proceeds of the fund should be paid to the treasurer of 
the State, who was " to keep a separate and distinct account of 
all receipts and disbursements on account of the school fund;" 
and that the comptroller should invest the same in either the 
state or United States stocks. The interest accruing from this 
fund, according to the law noticed above, was to be distributed 
among the various counties in proportion to the number of white 
children between the ages of five and eighteen attending school 
therein. 

Acts of i8jo and i8ji. — One of the weaknesses of the school 
law of 1849 was that it was too restrictive with regard to the 
investment of the school fund. It limited the power of the 
comptroller to invest in Florida and United States stocks. Now, 
as State Superintendent Beard pointed out,^'^ Florida had no 
stocks, and those of the United States were so high that it was 
not expedient to purchase them. On December 31, 1850,^- this 
weakness was remedied by the passage of an act which em- 
powered the comptroller to invest the school fund in the stocks 

^0 See Laws of Florida, 1848-49, Chap. 231. 
^^ Known as the " five per cent fund." 

12 When the state common-school fund was first established, Decem- 
ber 28, 1848, it consisted only of the proceeds of the sixteenth-section 
lands, or of other lands selected in lieu thereof. 

13 See Annual Report of the Register of Public Lands and State Super- 
intendent of Schools, in the House Journal, State of Florida, 1850-51, 
appendix, 51 ; also in the Senate Journal, appendix, 12. 

1* See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 338. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 19 

of Florida or other states of the Union, or to loan the same to 
city or county authorities within the State. 

Another weakness of the law was its failure to make adequate 
provision for the support of the schools. However, in 1851 three 
attempts were made to remedy this. The first was on January 6, 
when the counties were authorized, for the first time in the 
history of Florida, to levy a tax on both real and personal prop- 
erty for the support of the common schools ; but the amount levied 
could not exceed four dollars annually for each child of school 
age.^^ This limit seems to have been unnecessary for, as far as 
can be ascertained, only a few counties ever levied any school 
tax whatever.^® The second attempt was on January 11, when 
an act was approved which required that the proceeds " derived 
from the sale of slaves under the act of November 22, 1829," 
should be added to the school fund.^^ This, however, was re- 
pealed two years later. And finally, the third attempt was on 
January 24, when provision was made for increasing the school 
fund from the state treasury.^® The law enacted provided that 
in all counties where the money arising from the interest of the 
school fund was not sufficient to allow two dollars to be given 
annually for the education of each child the state superintendent 
should notify the comptroller of the amount of said deficiency, 
and also of the amount required by each county superintendent 
to make up the deficiency in his county; and that the treasurer, 
on the warrant of the comptroller, should pay to the several 
county superintendents the amount of said deficiency. But in 
the distribution of this school money no share was to be allowed 
for any child who had not attended school for at least three 
months within the year just preceding the time at which the 
distribution was to be made.^® 

School Law of 18 j^. — On Janviary i, 1853, another school law 
was enacted,-" which was more detailed and specific than the 

15 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 343. 

1"^ See House Journal, State of Florida, 1854-55, appendix, 6-8 ; also 
Senate Journal, appendix, 6-8. 

1'' See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 341. 

18 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 339. 

19 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 340. 

20 See Laws of Florida, 1852-53, Chap. 510; also Laws Relating to 
Common Schools in the State of Florida (printed by order of the gen- 
eral assembly in 1860), pp. 3-7. 



20 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

one of 1849. ^y this law the control and direction of the 
schools was given to the register of public lands, the county 
commissioners, the judges of probate, and local trustees. 

At the head of the system was the register of public lands, 
who was declared ex officio superintendent of schools for the 
State. As superintendent of schools, he had general supervision 
of all the common-school interests of the State. His chief duties 
were : ( i ) to ascertain, on the first day of July of each year, 
from the comptroller and treasurer of the State, the amount of 
school money to be distributed, and thereupon apportion it among 
the various counties;-^ (2) to certify the same, at once, to the 
comptroller, and also notify each county superintendent of the 
apportionment made to his county; (3) to have printed and 
transmitted to the several county superintendents such forms and 
instructions as he deemed requisite ; and (4) to make a biennial 
report to the governor as to (a) the condition of the schools, 
(b) the school receipts and expenditures, (c) plans for enlarging 
and administering the school fund, and for improving the schools 
in general, (d) the number of children in each county between 
five and eighteen years of age, (e) the number of children that 
attended school in each county during the year, and (/) all other 
matters pertaining to his office which he considered expedient 
to report. 

The management of the educational afifairs of each of the 
counties was intrusted to the county commissioners and judge 
of probate, who were made ex officio a county board of educa- 
tion and county superintendent of schools, respectively. As a 
school board, the county commissioners were authorized and di- 
rected : ( I ) to supplement the sum received from the State by 
any sum from the county treasury which they thought proper 
for the support of common schools; (2) to apportion the 
whole amount applicable to school purposes among the different 
school districts within the county; (3) to establish and maintain 
schools ; (4) to designate the length of time the schools were 

21 By act approved December 22, 1859, the school law of 1853 was 
amended so as to require the superintendent of schools for the State 
to pay, upon demand, "the amount of school money apportioned annually 
to each county to the judge of probate of the county, to be appropriated 
as required by law." See Laws of Florida, Adjourned Session, 1859, 
Chap. 1 01 1. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 21 

to be taught; (5) to select from among the patrons three trus- 
tees for each school ;^^ and (6) to fix the remuneration of the 
county superintendent, and also the total sum to be paid the 
teachers. ^^ 

The judge of probate, as the principal county school officer, 
was declared president of the board of education for his county. 
His chief duties, in addition to the one just mentioned, were: 
(i) to examine and employ teachers; (2) to direct the payment 
of them out of the state or county treasury; (3) to discharge 
any teacher proved to be " incompetent, immoral, or otherwise 
unfit to teach " ; and (4) to make a report to the state superin- 
tendent, on or before June i of each year, specifying (a) the 
number of children residing in his county between the ages of 
five and eighteen years,^* (b) the number of children that at- 
tended school during the year, (c) the length of time each teacher 
taught, (d) the salary of each teacher, (e) the number of children 
each one taught, together with the length of time each child 
attended,^' (/) the amount of money received from the various 
sources for the support of schools, and (g) the way in which 
the school revenue was expended. 

Such were the provisions of the school law of 1853, which, 
as State Superintendent Sheats says, " took a step as far in the 

22 These local school trustees were empowered simply to hear com- 
plaints from the teachers, and to expel any pupil failing to accommodate 
himself to the requirements of the school. By an act approved Decem- 
ber 22, 1859, however, they were given a voice in the selection of the 
teachers for their school, for according to that law the county super- 
intendent was allowed to employ only those whom they recommended (see 
Laws of Florida, Adjourned Session, 1859, Chap. loii). 

23 By act approved January 15, 1859, the county commissioners of each 
county were also authorized to direct the payment of the sum to which 
the tax assessor was entitled for taking the school census out of the 
treasury of the county (see Laws of Florida, 1858-59, Chap. 879). ^ 

24 It was the duty of the tax assessor to take, at the time of assessing 
the taxes of his county, the census of all children within his county over 
five and under eighteen years of age, and report the same on or before 
the first day of the following June, and every year thereafter. For this 
service he received five cents for each child that was reported. 

25 It was the duty of the teachers to report to their county super- 
intendent, at the end of the time for which they were employed, the 
number of children that had attended their respective schools, the name 
of each child, and the number of days that each one had attended. 



22 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

direction of adopting a system of free schools supported by tax- 
ation as was at that time practicable under existing conditions." ^® 
After this no effective legislation for establishing a system of 
public free schools was secured until the adoption of the consti- 
tution of 1868 and the enactment of the school law of 1869, 
which brought about the establishment of the present public- 
school system. 

B. Results Actually Achieved, 184^-1868 

Educational Accomplishment Prior to 186 1. — Having reviewed 
the constitutional and principal legal provisions for public-school 
education in the state of Florida for nearly a whole generation 
immediately following the admission of Florida to the Union, 
the next question to be considered is: What were the actual 
gains to the cause during the period? This can not be answered 
satisfactorily because, as in the case of the territorial period, 
the sources of information are so incom.plete and deficient that 
it is impossible to ascertain the actual gains. But, considering 
the sparsity of the population and the poverty of the people,^'^ 
it is quite evident from the data we have that considerable ed- 
ucational progress was made, especially from 1849 to 1861. 

Schools and School Enrollment. — As seen above, a school law 
fairly well adapted to the needs of the people and the conditions 
of the State was evolved. At first, though, it was put into oper- 
ation by only a very few of the counties. In 1850, the year 
following the passage of the first state school law, Hon. John 
Beard, state superintendent of schools, speaking of the public- 
school system in his annual report,^® said: "As to plans for 
' ameliorating the condition of the schools,' it would be manifestly 
premature and idle to attempt this at present. There must be 
something in existence to act on, before anything can be predi- 
tated of it . . . ." Evidently, therefore, there were but few 

26 See Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
i892-<)4, p. 7. 

27 in 1850, according to the United States census report of that year, 
the total white population of the State was but 47,203 — less than one per- 
son to a square mile ; and the true value of all property amounted to 
only $22,862,270. 

28 For this report see House Journal, State of Florida, 1850-51, ap- 
pendix, pp. 55-61 ; also Senate Journal, appendix, pp. 12-18. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 23 

public schools at that time. Just how many there were we can 
not say. We learn from the seventh United States census report,"" 
our only source of information, that there were but 69, with an 
enrollment of only 4,746 of the 18,097 white children between 
the ages of four and twenty years. Even four years later, or, one 
year after the enactment of the second state school law, there were, 
as State Superintendent David S. Walker tells us in his report,^^ 
still but few counties in which the school system had been put 
into practical operation. " With the exception of the counties 
of Monroe and Franklin," he says, " I have heard of none that 
have contributed anything from the county treasury for the aug- 
mentation of the school money received from the State." His 
report of 1858, ^^ however, shows that several of the counties 
were establishing and maintaining public schools. In closing his 
report, he says : " From the promise n . w afforded us by the 
awakening interest of our people in our common schools and 
the two state seminaries, it seems that the time has almost ar- 
rived when all the children of Florida may and will be educated 
in her own institutions . . . ." Two years afterward other coun- 
ties were trying the experiment. But just how many public 
schools were in operation in the State we do not know, because 
only seven of the thirty-six county superintendents made any re- 
port on the subject of schools in their respective counties. The 
United States census report of that year^^ gives 97, with an 
enrollment of 8,494 of the 30,461 white children between four 
and twenty years of age.^^ There were probably more than that, 
for in just the seven counties from which reports were received 
there were 38 schools maintained.^* However, accepting the 
figures of the United States census reports for 1850 and i860 in 

29 See pp. 396, 404, and 405. 

30 For this report see House Journal, 1854-55, appendix, pp. 6-S; also 
Senate Journal, appendix, pp. 14-18. 

31 See H. J., 1858-59, app., 14-18. also S. J., app., 14-18. 

32 See volume on " Mortality and Miscellaneous Statistics," pp. 506-07 ; 
also volume on " Population," p. 50. 

33 Superintendent Walker, in his report of i860 (for this report see 
S. J., 1860-61, app.. 9-12), gives 21,178 as the number of white children 
of, school age, that is, between the ages of five and eighteen years. 

3* Escambia, i; Duval, 2; Jackson, 16; Marion, 14; Monroe, i (with 
two teachers) ; Washington, 4. The superintendent of Wakulla County 



24 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

regard to the public schools of Florida, we find that during the 
decade immediately following the enactment of the first state 
school law the number of schools increased from 69 to 97 and 
the school enrollment from 4,746 to 8,494,^° whereas the total 
white population increased from 47,203^^ to 77,747^'^ and the school 
population from about 18,000 to about 30,000. In other words, 
while the total population and school population increased about 
65 per cent, the number of schools and school enrollment in- 
creased 41 and 80 per cent, respectively. Thus we see that 
between 1849 ^^id 1861 some progress was made in establishing 
public schools and in getting the children to attend them. 

Administrative Organisation and Financial Support. — Other 
public-school gains were increased efficiency in the administration 
and an increase in the means of support. As mentioned in the 
paragraph just above, very little was done at first in the way 
of establishing schools. This was due, not so much to lack of 
funds, as to lack of interest, on the part of the administrative 
officers. As we have seen, abundant legal provisions were made 
for securing ample revenue. In the first place, for example, a 
state school-fund consisting of the proceeds of the sales of all 
lands granted to the State for the support of public schools was 
established in 1848; secondly, the school law of 1849 directed 
that this fund be augmented by money received from certain 
other sources, and that the interest thereon be distributed amongst 
the different counties on the basis of school population. And 
yet the income from the school-fund in 1850 amounted to only 
$250, out of a total annual income of $22,386.^^ But as the 
state superintendent of schools became more concerned about 
the educational welfare of the children there was an improve- 
ment in this respect, the income being $5,031.07 in 1853-54,^" 

reported that the county commissioners had laid a tax of ten per cent 
upon the state tax for common-school purposes, but that no children 
attended school that year (see the report of the state superintendent, in 
S. J., 1860-61, app., 9-12). 

35 During this same time the number of academies and other schools 
increased from 34 to 138, and their enrollment from 1,251 to 4,486. 

36 See Seventh Census of the United States, 1850, p. 402. 

3'? See Eighth Census of the United States, i860, volume on " Popu- 
lation," p. 53. 

38 See Seventh Census of the United States, 1850, p. 404. 

39 See H. J., 1854-55, app., 6-8; also S. J., app., 6-8. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 25 

$6,059.80 in i855-56,*« $6,542.60 in i857-58,''i $8,630.10 in 
1858-59,^2 and $9,530.10 in 1859-60.*- At no time, however, was 
the apportionment to any county sufficient to run its schools. 
Seeing that the income from the state school-fund was so small, 
the legislature, in 1851, authorized the counties to raise by tax- 
ation any sum not exceeding four dollars for each child between 
five and eighteen years of age.*^ But only two counties — Frank- 
lin and Monroe — having availed themselves of this law, the 
legislature, in 1853, again attempted to increase the school receipts 
by authorizing the county commissioners of the several counties 
" to add to the sum apportioned to the county by the State any 
sum which they may deem proper to be paid out of the county 
treasury." No limit was put upon their discretion. They could 
make the county school-fund as large as they chose to make it.** 
Thus it is plain that the fault was not with the law if any child 
of the State were deprived of the opportunity to attend a good 
common school, but almost entirely with the school officers, es- 
pecially the probate judges and county commissioners, on whom 
the welfare of the public-school system primarily depended. In 
this connection, Hon. David S. Walker, the first aggressive state 
superintendent of schools, in his report for 1853-54,*^ says: 
" Hitherto, the judges of probate and county commissioners have 
not, I fear, given to this subject the consideration it deserves. . . ." 
Prior to this report by Superintendent Walker, it seems that no 
county, except Franklin and Monroe, had levied a school tax or 
contributed anything from its treasury to augment the sum re- 
ceived from the State. In fact, it seems that during the early 
fifties the money received from public funds was used in many 
of the counties to subsidize favorite private schools. Later, 
however, as the county school officers became more interested 
in the work of the public schools there was an improvement in 
this respect, too. A few more of the counties levied a school 
tax, and several of them contributed something from the county 

40 See H. J., 1856-57, app., 12-13; also S. J., app., 12-13. 

41 See H. J., 1858-59, app., 14-18; also S. J., app., 14-18. 

42 See S. J., 1860-61, app., 9-12. 

43 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 343. 

44 See Laws of Florida, 1852-53, Chap. 510, Sec. 4. 

45 See H. J., 1854-55, app., 6-8 ; also S. J., app., 6-8. 



26 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

treasury. Thus through the influence of the school officers, 
both state and local, Florida was placed on the roll of Southern 
states that had, b)^ i860, entered on the noble work of public 
education. 

Popular Interest in Education. — Still another public-school 
gain was a growth of popular interest in education. At first 
there were many patrons who had very little or no interest in 
the work of the schools. Unfortunately, in many instances, they 
outnumbered those who were interested. That there was this 
widespread indifiference is evidenced by the fact, first, that the 
people were unwilling to provide funds necessary for the proper 
support of the schools, and, second, that they also failed to see 
that their children attended. We learn from the United States 
census report of 1850*'' that there were but 118 schools in op- 
eration during the scholastic year 1849-50' — 49 private and 69 
public ; that there were only about 35 per cent of the white school 
population enrolled in all the schools — about 7 per cent in the 
former and 28 per cent in the latter; and that there were no 
counties in which a school tax was levied. Furthermore, we 
find this statement in State Superintendent Walker's report for 
1853-54: *^ " I very much regret the apathy which has prevailed 
in the public mind on this all important subject .... Few 
persons anywhere seem to have given the subject much atten- 
tion . . . ." But subsequently there was a change in the attitude 
of the patrons along this line. Superintendent Walker states 
in his report for 1857-58 that there was an " awakening interest " 
in the common schools.*^ Moreover, we learn from the United 
States census report of two years later*** that both the number 
of schools and the school enrollment had almost doubled since 
1850, and that there were several counties which were either 
levying a tax or contributing something from the county treasury, 
or both, for the support of the school work. It is evident, 
then, that just prior to i860 a public sentiment favorable to 
education was rapidly developing. 

The educational progress for the period beginning with 1840 
and ending with i860 is partially shown by the following table, 

4'^ See pages 404-oS and 396-99. 

4" See H. J., 1854-55, app., 8; also S. J., app., 8. 

4^ For this report see H. J., 1858-59, app., 14-18; also S. J., app., 14-18. 

^■' See volume on " Mortality and Miscellaneous Statistics," 506-08. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 



TABLE I 
Statistics of Education in Florida for 1840, 1850 and i860* 



Academies and other schools 

Number 

Teachers 

Pupils 

Annual income, total .... 

From endowment 

From public funds 

From other sources .... 
Public schools: 

Number 

Teachers 

School population 

Total enrollment 

Average attendance 

Annual income, total .... 

From endowment 

From taxation 

From public funds 

From other sources .... 

Illiterates over 20 

Libraries : 

Public 

Volumes 

Sunday-school and church 

Volumes 

School 

Volumes 

Total libraries 

Total volumes 

Newspapers and periodicals: 

Number 

Circulation 

Copies printed annually 



1840 



1850 



i860 



732 



51 



34 
49 

1.251 
513.089 

1,900 

11,189 

69 

73 

18,097* 

4.746 

1,878 

^22,386 



22,136 
3.859 



1,000 

4 

860 

2 

800 

7 

2,660 

10 

5.750 

319,800 



138 

185 

4,486 

S75.412 

2,045 

3.964 
69,403 

97 

98 

30,461'-' 

8.494 

2,032 

$27,289 

75 

776 

9.530'^ 

16,908 

5.341 

54 

37.125 

4 

4.250 

8 

5,000 

66 

46,375 



15.500 
1,081,600 



" The figures given here are for whites only. 

'' The number of inhabitants between 4 and 20 years of age. 

" Superintendent Corley gives $9,530.10 as the amount received from public 
funds, while the United States census report gives only $2,340 as the amount 
received. 

which has been prepared from figures given in the United States 
census reports of 1840, 1850 and i860, and in State Superin- 
tendent Hugh A. Corley's report for 1859-60.^'' 

Educational Accomplishment from i860 to i86p. — Thus we 
have seen that by i860 Florida had made a good beginning in 
the direction of estabhshing a pubHc-school rystem. She had 



50 For this report see S. J., 1860-61, app., 9-12. 



28 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

laid the foundation, and had commenced to build thereon. But 
with the outbreak of the Civil War, that which she had so well 
begun had to be discontinued until life had resumed a more 
normal course. The schools which had been in operation were 
brought to an end ; and both the seminary and common-school 
funds were given the governor to be used in helping to defray 
the expenses of the war.^^ During the war some efforts were 
made to establish and maintain free schools, especially for the 
children of the soldiers ; ^^ but very little was accomplished, as the 
attention of the people was absorbed in the preservation of the 
state and home. And just after the war there were some attempts 
at public education, particularly for the indigent children ; ^^ but 
again little could be done, on account of the dreadful conditions 
that prevailed over the State. For by the close of the terrible 
conflict the educational facilities had, for the most part, been 
completely destroyed ; the total principal of the common-school 
fund had been spent for arms, ammunition, and other objects, 
and the only really productive portion remaining was about 
600,000 acres of unsold land; and, worse still, the property of 
the people throughout the State had been greatly diminished in 
value. In addition, the people had become very much alarmed 
by the fear that coeducation of the races would be forced upon 
them by a reconstruction legislature or a Congress possessed with 
millennial zeal for universal brotherhood. These and many other 
hindrances rendered public education practically impossible. So 
unfavorable were the conditions that almost nothing was ac- 
complished until the establishment of the present public-school 
system in 1869. 

C. Negro Education 

So far, in our treatment of the rise of the public school in 
Florida, we have confined our attention to the establishment of 
schools for white children only. But our study would be incomplete 
without specific mention of the efiforts to educate the negroes. 
In closing this chapter, then, let us direct our attention to what 
was done in the way of establishing schools for negro children. 

f^i See Laws of Florida, 1860-61, p. 232. 
^"^ See Laws of Florida, 1864, pp. ig-20. 
^^ See Laws of Florida, 1866, p. 50. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 29 

Negro Education Prior to i86j. — Prior to 1865 the negroes 
received no education in terms of the school. In fact, laws were 
passed which made the establishment of negro schools impossible. 
For example, in 1832, while Florida was still a territory, a law 
was enacted prohibiting negroes to congregate for any purpose ex- 
cept for work or to attend divine worship at any place attended 
by vz-hite persons.^* Again in 1846, one year after Florida be- 
came a state, a similar but more stringent law was passed. ^^ 

Schools Conducted under the Auspices of Certain Northern 
Benevolent Associations. — But in 1865, shortly after the close of 
the war, certain Northern benevolent associations, particularly the 
African Civilization Society, the Home Missionary Society of the 
African Methodist Episcopal Church, and the New York branch 
of the American Freedmen's Union Commission, began to estab- 
lish negro schools at different points in the State. Through these 
agencies thirty schools were in successful operation at the end of 
the year.^*^ In regard to these schools, Hon. C. Thurston Chase, 
state superintendent of public instruction, in his report submitted 
to Governor Harrison Reed on January 9, 1869,^^ has this to say: 

" Numbers of the ladies who assumed the duties of teachers were 
persons of wealth and high social position at home. Coming at a time 
when the freed children were cast suddenly at the threshold of a new 
life, unused to the responsibilities and ignorant of the duties thus thrust 
upon them, they were welcomed with great joy, and labored with sincere 
Christian devotion, amidst hardships and privations. The teachers have 
changed, but most of the schools are still maintained." 

Legal Provision for Negro Education. — Early in the following 
year — January 16 — a law was passed providing for the creation 
of a public system of education for the children of the f reedmen.^® 
It provided for the appointment, by the governor, of a super- 
intendent, who was directed to organize colored schools, and to 
employ competent teachers for them. For the support of these 
schools it provided, first, for a tuition fee of fifty cents per 

5* See Acts of the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida, 
1832, p. 14s. 

55 See Laws of Florida, 1846, Chap. 87, Sec. 9. 

^6 See Barnard's American Journal of Education, XIX, 338. 

^"^ See page 5. 

58 See Laws of Florida, 1866, pp. 37-39. 



30 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

month to be collected from each pupil,^^ and second, for a tax 
of one dollar each upon " all male persons of color between the 
ages of 21 and 45." 

Schools Conducted under the Auspices of the State. — As soon 
as this law was enacted, efforts were made to put it into oper- 
ation. The Governor immediately appointed a superintendent, 
who at once entered upon the duties of his office. This officer, 
as he himself tells us,"" " met everywhere a kind reception and 
hearty response." The freedmen, in addition to contributing to 
the support of teachers, in several instances erected school build- 
ings at their own expense. And, in a number of instances, the 
landed proprietors of the State greatly aided in the establishment 
and maintenance of schools.*'^ Considerable aid and encourage- 
ment were received from certain outside sources, too, the Freed- 
men's Bureau being the foremost.^^ As a result, by the close 
of the year the number of colored schools had increased from 
30 to 65 ; the number of teachers employed, from 19 to 45 ; and 
the school enrollment, from 1,900 to 2,726. The subjects taught 
were easy reading, writing, spelling, and simple arithmetic. As 
to the work of these schools, E. B. Duncan, superintendent of 
common schools for freedmen, says in his report for 1866:^^ 

" These schools have been marked by a most earnest perseverance on 
the part of the teacher's, while the pupils take the liveliest interest, and num- 
bers who have gone only 4 months read and spell readily, and . . . show 
great progress in figures. . . ." 
In another place he says : 

" The teachers have been most all colored, of good moral character, 
delighting in their work, maintaining good discipline, men of energy, 
and many well qualified. ... I have never heard a single complaint 
against them." 

For the most part, these schools were continued during 1867 
and 1868. Others were also established. During these two 
years there were, respectively, 71 and 54 schools in operation, 
with an average enrollment of 2,205. The subjects taught were 
still very rudimentary, being mostly reading, writing, arithmetic, 

^9 This was later changed to one dollar. 

60 Reverend E. B. Duncan, Report of the Superintendent of Common 
Schools for Freedman, 1866; in Senate Journal, State of Florida, 1865- 
66, appendix. 

61 Barnard's American Journal of Education, XIX, 337. 

62 See Sen. Jour., 1865-66, app. 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 



31 



and geography. Some higher branches were taught, but these 
were pursued by only a very few of the students. As to the 
teachers, nearly half of them were white; and, as Hon. D. S. 
Walker, then governor of Florida, said,^^ they were " some of 
our most respected white ladies and gentlemen in the State." 



TABLE II 

Statistics of Negro Education in Florida, 1865-1868^* 



186s 



1866 



1867 



1868 



Number of schools, total. . 

Day 

Night 

Number of teachers, total. 

White . 

Colored 

School enrollment, total . . 

Male 

Female 

Average attendance 

Per cent of enrollment. . 
Enrollment, by subjects; 

In the alphabet 

In easy reading 

In advanced reading . . . 

In writing 

In geography 

In arithmetic 

In higher branches 

Annual income, total 

From freedmen . . . . j. . . . 

From others 



30 



19 



1,900 



65 
35 
30 
45 



,726 



71 

42 

29 

64 

32 

32 

2,228 

I.0S3 

1. 17s 

1,815 

81 

418 

1,047 

432 

562 

208 

481 

19 

521,000 

608 

20,392 



54 
33 
21 
61 
24 

37 
2,182 
1,032 
1,150 
1,619 

74 

212 

1,163 

683 

1,040 

485 

898 

50 

$19,200 

629 

i8,S7i 



Educational Accomplishment. — From what has been said, to- 
gether with the foregoing table, which has been prepared by fig- 
ures taken from Barnard's American Journal of Education and 
from various reports of the superintendent of common schools 
for freedmen, there can hardly be any doubt that the schools 
conducted for negroes during the four years ending with 1868 
were of much value in laying the foundation for the education 
of the colored people of the State. 

63 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1869, p. 5- 

64 For the figures given here see the various reports of the super- 
intendent of common schools for freedmen, published in the House and 
Senate Journals; also Barnard's American Journal of Education, XIX, 23^. 



32 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

Summary 

During the period beginning with 1845 and ending with i{ 
several attempts were made to provide a system of public edu- 
cation. In the first place, the constitution of 1845 directed that 
the lands granted by Congress for the benefit of common schools 
and institutions of learning should forever be devoted to that 
purpose alone, and that the legislature should make adequate 
provision for preserving these lands from waste or damage. 

By legislative act of 1847, the control and direction of the 
common-school and seminary lands was given almost exclusively 
to the register of public lands. The following year he was di- 
rected to sell the common-school lands, and to pay the proceeds 
into the state treasury for the establishment of a state common- 
school fund. 

In 1849 ^^ act was passed providing for the establishment of 
common schools for all white children of the State between five 
and eighteen years of age. The administration of the schools 
was placed in the hands of the register of public lands, who 
was directed to officiate as state superintendent of schools, the 
judges of probate, who were directed to serve as superintendents 
of schools for their respective counties, and local boards of 
trustees, who were to be elected annually by the taxpayers of the 
various school districts. The duties of these officers in regard 
to the schools were also set forth. 

In the same year a law was enacted providing that the com- 
mon-school fund should consist of ( i ) the proceeds of the six- 
teenth-section lands, (2) "five per cent of the net proceeds of 
the United States lands within the State," (3) the proceeds of 
all escheated estates, (4) the net proceeds " of all property found 
on the coasts or shores of the State," and (5) all other property 
thereafter granted for the benefit of common schools ; that the 
proceeds of this fund should be paid into the treasury of the 
State ; and that the comptroller should invest the same in either 
Florida or United States stocks. 

The following year (1850), the comptroller was authorized to 
invest the school fund in any state stocks, or to loan it to city 
or county authorities within the State; and the counties were 
empowered to levy a tax for the support of common schools. 
The next year, the school fund was enlarged by the proceeds 



RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 33 

received by the State from the sale of slaves under the act of 
November 22, 1829; and provision was also made for augmenting 
the school fund from the state treasury. 

In 1853 the school law was revised, the principal change being 
that the county commissioners were made ex officio a county 
board of education, and were authorized to supplement the sum 
received from the State by any sum from the county treasury 
which they thought proper for the support of common schools. 
After this there was no more school legislation of any importance 
until 1869, when the present public-school system was established. 

Just what results were actually achieved during this period, 
no one can say, on account of the meager sources of information. 
From the data that are available, though, it is quite evident 
that by i860 considerable progress had been made in the way 
of establishing public schools for the white children of the State 
and in getting the children to attend them, the school officers 
had become more efficient, and the patrons had become more 
interested in the work of the schools. However, after i860 
practically nothing was accomplished, since the thoughts and en- 
ergies of the people were absorbed in the preservation of state 
and home. 

As to the estabHshment of schools for the negro children, 
absolutely nothing was done, except during the last four years 
of the period. In 1865 certain Northern benevolent associations 
began the good work of establishing negro schools at different 
points of the State. Through them thirty schools were in suc- 
cessful operation by the close of the year. The next year a law 
was enacted providing common schools for freedmen. No time 
was lost in putting it into operation. By the end of the year the 
number of schools had increased to sixty-five. For the most 
part, these were continued during 1867 and 1868. The schools 
conducted for the negro children during these four years re- 
sulted in the improvement of the pupils both in knowledge and 
in the general conduct of life, and thereby helped to pave the 
way for the establishment of a system of education in which the 
negroes are admitted to school privileges on equal terms with 
the whites. 



CHAPTER III 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM 

Having surveyed the rise of the pubHc school in Florida, let 
us now notice the establishment of the present public-school 
system. This was made possible, as already stated, by certain 
provisions of the constitution of 1868 and the school law of the 
following year. First, let us glance at the constitutional provisions 
concerning public education. 

I. Constitution of 1868 

In accordance with the act of Congress passed March 2, 1867, 
generally known as " the reconstruction act," a convention met 
at Tallahassee from January 20 to February 25, 1868, and, ig- 
noring the constitution of 1865, framed another constitution, 
which was submitted to the people in May of that year, and 
ratified by 14,520 votes against 9,491 votes.^ 

Article on Education. — This constitution contained the fol- 
lowing article on education : ^ 

" Section i. It is the paramount duty of the State to make ample 
provisions for the education of all the children residing within its 
borders, without distinction or preference. 

" Section 2. The legislature shall provide a uniform system of com- 
mon schools and a university, and shall provide for the liberal mainte- 
nance of the same. Instruction in them shall be free. 

" Section 3. There shall be a superintendent of public instruction, 
whose term of office shall be four years, and until the appointment and 
qualification of his successor. He shall have general supervision of the 
educational interests of the State. His duties shall be prescribed by law. 

" Section 4. The common-school fund, the interest of which shall be 
exclusively applied to the support and maintenance of common schools 
and purchase of suitable libraries and apparatus therefor, shall be derived 
from the following sources : 

" The proceeds of all lands that have been or may hereafter be granted 
to the State by the United States for educational purposes ; appropriations 

1 See Journal of the Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of 
the State of Florida. 1868. 

2 Article IX. 

3^- 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM 35 

by the State; the proceeds of lands or other property which may accrue 
to the State by escheat or forfeiture; the proceeds of all property 
granted to the State when the purpose of such grant shall not be 
specified; all moneys which may be paid as an exemption from military 
duty; all fines collected under the penal laws of this State; such portion 
of the per capita tax as may be prescribed by law for educational pur- 
poses; twenty-five per centum of the sales of pubhc lands which are now 
or hereafter may be owned by the State. 

" Section 5. A special tax of not less than one mill on the dollar of 
all taxable property of the State, in addition to the other means pro- 
vided, shall be levied and apportioned annually for the support and 
maintenance of common schools. 

" Section 6. The principal of the common-school fund shall remain 
sacred and inviolate. 

" Section 7. Provision shall be made by law for the distribution oi 
the common-school fund among the several counties of the State in 
proportion to the number of children residing therein between the ages of 
four and twenty-one years. 

" Section 8; Each county shall be required to raise annually by tax, 
for the support of common schools therein, a sum not less than one-half 
the amount apportioned to each county for that year from the income of 
the common-school fund. Any school district neglecting to establish and 
maintain for at least three months in each year such school or schools 
as may be provided by law for such district shall forfeit its portion of the 
common-school fund during such neglect. 

" Section 9. The superintendent of public instruction, secretary of 
state, and attorney general shall constitute a body-corporate, to be 
known as the board of education of Florida. The superintendent of 
public instruction shall be president thereof. The duties of the board of 
education shall be prescribed by the legislature." 

Provisions for School Organisation. — As will be readily seen, 
the constitution of Florida for 1868, like many of the consti- 
tutions of the Western and other Southern states of that gen- 
eration, went somewhat into detail regarding the organization 
and support of the public educational system. In regard to 
school organization, it contained three provisions, (i) It author- 
ized the legislature to organize a system of schools for all the 
children of the State — for the black as well as for the white. 
Prior to this, as we have shown, the negroes had received very 
little education in terms of the school; but from now on they 
were to share equally with the whites. (2) It provided for a 
superintendent of public instruction as a separate state officer. 
Since 1849, ^s was pointed out, the register of public lands 



36 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

had acted as state superintendent. (3) It provided also for a 
state board of education, consisting of tiie superintendent of 
public instruction, secretary of state, and attorney general. The 
duties of the superintendent and the board of education were 
to be prescribed by law. 

Provisions for School Support. — In regard to the means of 
support for the public-school system, the constitution contained 
five different provisions, (i) It provided for a common-school 
fund from quite a number of sources. As we have seen, there 
had been such a fund in one form or another since December, 
1848. (2) The principal of this fund was to be kept intact. 
Nothing but the interest thereon could be spent. (3) This was 
ordered to be distributed among the various counties in pro- 
portion to the number of children between four and twenty-one 
residing therein. However, any county neglecting to maintain 
a school or schools for at least three months in the year 
was to forfeit its portion of the income from the common- 
school fund during such neglect. (4) A state tax of not less 
than one mill on the dollar of all taxable property was ordered 
to be levied and apportioned annually. This feature seems to 
have been entirely new in Florida. (5) And finally, the coun- 
ties were required to raise, through taxation, a sum equal to 
one-half the amount received from the income of the common- 
school fund. 

II. School Law of 1869 

Thus we have seen that the constitution of 1868 contained 
several progressive features respecting public education. But 
it required legislation to make them operative. Such legisla- 
tion was immediately urged by Governor Reed. That year, in 
his message to the legislature, he said : ^ " It will be necessary 
that a well-prepared plan for the early inauguration of the sys- 
tem of public education contemplated in the constitution be 
enacted at this session." In accordance with this recommen- 
dation of the Governor, the legislature, in January, 1869, enacted 
a law providing for a system of common schools.* 

Its Provisions. — This law is especially interesting, as it was 
the first state-wide effort to organize the educational forces 

3 See House Journal, 1868-69, P- I4- 
* See Laws of Florida, 1869, Chap. 1686. 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM 37 

of Florida. Previous to this, there had been lack of organi- 
zation and inadequate facilities — some form of school operation, 
but no real public-school system. This being the first common- 
school law which succeeded in creating a real system of public 
education, and being also the true foundation of subsequent 
legislation and the system now in force, it should be examined 
carefully. As we shall see, it contained some excellent provisions 
relative to (i) administrative organization. (2) environment 
and equipment of the schools, (3) the teaching force, (4) the 
kinds of instruction to be offered, and (5) the support of the 
school system. 

Administrative Organisation. — In the first place, the law pro- 
vided for the establishment and maintenance of a general and 
uniform system of public instruction throughout the State, 
wherein tuition was to be free " to all the youth residing in the 
State between the ages of six and twenty-one years." Super- 
visory oversight and control of the system was intrusted to a 
department of public instruction, consisting of a superintendent 
of pubHc instruction and a state board of education, together 
with a board of public instruction and a superintendent of 
schools for each county, and local school trustees, treasurers, 
and agents. 

The State Board of Education. — At the head of the department 
of public instruction stood *a state board of education, consist- 
ing of the superintendent of public instruction, secretary of 
state, and attorney general, all of whom, as you notice, were 
ex officio members — men with a great many other public and 
private duties to perform. The superintendent of public instrucr 
tion acted as president, and the state treasurer as treasurer of 
the board. This board was constituted a corporate body for 
educational purposes. In that capacity it was directed and em- 
powered as follows : 

" 1st'. To obtain possession of and take the charge, oversight, and 
management of all the lands granted to, or held by the State for educa- 
tional purposes, and to fix the terms of sale, rental or use of such lands, 
and to do whatever may be necessary to preserve them from trespass or 
injury, and for their improvement'. 

"2d. To have the direction and management, and to provide for the 
safe-keeping and expenditure of all the educational funds of the State, 
with due regard to the highest interests of education. 



38 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

" 3d. To audit the accounts of the superintendent of pubhc instruc- 
tion, allowing actual necessary expenses. 

"4th. To entertain and decide upon questions and appeals referred 
to them by the superintendent of public instruction, or any matters of 
difference or dispute arising under the operation of this act, and to 
prescribe the manner of making appeals and conducting arbitrations. 

" 5th. To remove any subordinate officer in the department for in- 
competency, neglect of duty, or other causes which would disqualify a 
person for the appointment. 

" 6th. To use the available income and appropriations to the uni- 
versity or seminary fund in establishing one or more departments of the 
university at such place or places as may ofifer the best' inducements. 

" 7th. To keep in view the establishment of a university on a broad 
and liberal basis. . . . 

" 8th. To co-operate with the superintendent of public instruction in 
the organization of the department, and for the general diffusion of 
knowledge in the State." 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction. — As we have already 
seen, the superintendent of public instruction was the principal 
educational officer for the State. As provided for by the state 
constitution,^ he was appointed by the governor, the senate con- 
firming the appointment, and held office four years, or until 
the appointment and qualification of his successor. He had 
general supervision of all the educational interests of the State. 
His chief powers and duties were: (i) to be a member and 
president of the state board of education; (2) to have oversight 
of all matters pertaining to the public schools, school buildings, 
grounds, equipment, and supplies; (3) to have printed and dis- 
tributed, free of charge, to all officers and teachers, the school 
laws and such other forms of printed matter as he deemed 
necessary for their use; (4) to hold meetings of county super- 
intendents of schools and other school officers; (5) to hold 
teachers' institutes and employ competent instructors for them; 
(6) to certificate graduates of the department of teaching at 
the state university, and those who had been eminently success- 
ful as teachers; (7) to fix the standard of qualification for 
teachers generally; (8) to provide plans and specifications for 
the construction of school buildings, and give directions in re- 
gard to equipment and suppUes, and other relevant matters; 
(9) to distribute the state school-funds to their separate uses; 

5 Constitution of 1868, Art. V, Sec. 17. 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM 39 

(lo) to decide appeals and controversies arising under the op- 
eration of the act, or refer the cases to the state board of 
education for decision; (ii) to adopt a seal for his own official 
use; (12) to gather and preserve such educational and historical 
matter, specimens of natural history, and samples of school books 
and appliances as he thought useful for the information of the 
school officers and teachers; and (13) to provide rules and reg- 
ulations for the management of the department of public in- 
struction. 

County Boards of Public Instruction. — But in addition to the 
educational organization for the State as a whole, there were 
also county educational organizations for the administration of 
schools. Each county was regarded as a school district, and its 
educational interests were committed to a board of public in- 
struction. This body was composed of not more than five mem- 
bers, all of whom were appointed by the state board of education, 
after being nominated by the superintendent of public instruction, 
and recommended by the representatives of the county. The 
county superintenedent of schools was, by virtue of his office, 
its secretary and agent. The chairman and other officers were 
chosen by the board itself. 

This board was constituted a corporate body for the adminis- 
tration of the educational affairs of the county. Its principal pow- 
ers and duties were as follows : ( i ) to assume and hold title to all 
property of the county, and to have the oversight, management, 
and disposition of the same, keeping in mind the best educational 
interests; (2) to receive, hold, and manage the common-school 
funds of the county, with due regard to their just distribution 
and use; (3) to locate and maintain schools, as needed within 
the county, for not less than three months in each year; (4) to 
have oversight of the construction, rental, repair, and improve- 
ment of the schoolhouses, fences, grounds, and equipment; (5) 
to procure the textbooks and proper apparatus for the schools, 
and the books and stationery needed by the teachers; (6) to 
grade and classify the pupils; (7) to examine, certificate, em- 
ploy, and pay the teachers; (8) to fix the compensation and 
expenses of the county superintendent of schools ; (9) to choose 
candidates for admission to the state university or seminaries; 
(10) to determine the amount of money to be raised by taxation 



40 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

for educational purposes within the county; (ii) to keep an 
accurate record of all their official acts, proceedings, and decisions, 
of all financial matters relating to the schools of the county, of 
the state and condition of each school, and to report to the 
superintendent of public instruction when so required; (12) and, 
in general, to do whatever was reasonable and necessary for 
the educational welfare of the county. 

County Superintendents of Schools. — The chief educational 
officer in each county of the State was the county superintendent 
of schools. Like the superintendent of public instruction, he 
was appointed by the governor.^ His term of office was two 
years, and his principal functions were: (i) to act as secretary 
and agent of the county board of education; (2) to ascertain 
the places where schools were needed; (3) to present plans and 
estimates for the construction and improvement of school build- 
ings; (4) to visit the schools of the county, carefully observe 
the condition of the same, and give such helpful suggestions 
as he deemed proper; (5) to arouse a greater interest in educa- 
tion throughout the county; (6) to select, for appointment by 
the county board of education, the local school trustees, and, 
when elected, to see that they attended to their duties, and were 
kept supplied with copies of the laws, decisions, blanks, and 
regulations of the state department of education; (7) to decide, 
on appeal to him, all disputes and controversies arising within 
the county, or refer them to the county board for decision; (8) 
to see that the educational afifairs of the county were properly 
guarded, and that its rights in relation to education were se- 
cured ; (9) to establish and maintain schools within the county, 
under the direction of the superintendent of public instruction, 
before the organization of the county board of education, or 
in case that it failed to do so; (10) to examine and certificate 
teachers when empowered to do so by the county board, and to 
revoke or suspend the same when sufficient cause was given ; 
(11) to perform all the acts of the county board of education 
when that body failed or neglected to attend to its duties; (12) 
to suspend any certificate when there was a good reason for 
doing so; and (13) to keep a record of each school in the county, 
and of the expenditure therefor. 
« Constitution of 1868, Art. V, Sec. 19. 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM 41 

Local School Trustees. — In addition to the state and county 
educational organizations for administrative purposes, there were 
also district, or rather subdistrict, organizations for the adminis- 
tration of schools. A subdistrict consisted of one or more schools, 
and the control and management of its educational affairs were 
given by the county board of education to a local board of 
trustees. This local body was composed of not more than five 
members. They were nominated by the county superintendent 
of schools, recommended by the patrons of the subdistrict, and 
appointed by the county board of education. Each local school- 
board was charged with the following powers and duties : ( i ) to 
attend to the construction and rental of school buildings; (2) to 
look after the school property, and make or oversee the making 
of repairs and improvements; (3) to see that the schools were 
properly supplied with suitable textbooks and teaching supplies ; 
(4) to examine each school once a month, and see that it was 
conducted in accordance with the rules and regulations of the 
state department of public instruction ; ( 5 ) to assist the teachers, 
when necessary, in matters of attendance and discipline; (6) to 
try to awaken among the people an increased interest in educa- 
tion; (7) to suggest changes and improvements to the county 
superintendent of schools; (8) to keep a complete and reliable 
record of all their official acts and proceedings and the length 
of time actually taught by each teacher; (9) to certify the 
accounts of teachers and other persons to the county board of 
education ; and (10) to make a report to the county superintendent 
of schools every three months, or oftener when required, on 
all matters committed to their charge. 

So much for the administrative organization provided for. 
Let us now notice some of the provisions of the law relative 
to the environment and equipment of the schools, the teaching 
force, the system of public instruction, and the support of the 
schools. 

Environment and Equipment of the Schools. — When a school 
was to be organized, the site was determined by the county 
board of education. To be sure, the patrons were usually con- 
sulted. It was to be centrally located ; accessible to all who 
should attend; dry, airy, healthful, and pleasant; and to contain 
not less than one acre in the country districts, and as nearly 



42 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

that as practicable in the villages and cities. The construction, 
repair, and improvement of the school buildings were to be at- 
tended to by the local trustees, the county board of education 
having the oversight and management of the same. Suitable 
textbooks, proper apparatus, and teaching supplies for the school 
were to be provided by the county board at the public expense, 
it being left to the local trustees to see that the school was supplied. 

The Teaching Force. — The teachers of the common schools 
in any county were appointed by the board of public instruction 
for that county, and approved by the trustees of the various 
subdistricts. However, in this connection, as in the location 
of a school site and in all matters of vital interest to the parents 
and children, the patrons were usually consulted. 

That some importance was attached to the preparation of 
those who were to be entrusted with teaching positions was 
shown in three different ways. In the first place, the state 
board of education was authorized and directed to establish a 
department of teaching at such place or places as would offer 
the best inducements. It was also to keep in view the estab- 
lishment of a state university, one object of which was to train 
youth for the teaching profession. Secondly, only those were 
appointed to teaching positions who had already been duly ex- 
amined and certificated. The examination of candidates for 
teaching was one of the duties and powers of the county board 
of education, and of the county superintendent when so author- 
ized by the county board. But the licensing of these candidates 
was left to the county board and the state superintendent of 
public education. Certificates granted by the former were good 
only in the county in which they were granted, and for only 
one year. Those granted by the latter were good in any part 
of the State, and for the time specified. In both cases the 
standard of qualification was fixed by the state superintendent.'^ 
And, in the third place, the importance of the training of teach- 
ers was shown by the fact that the law made it the duty of 

"^ Three grades of certificates were granted, but there is no record 
as to the exact standards that were required. We do know, however, 
that the candidates for certificates were given a brief examination in the 
following common-school subjects: reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, 
geography, and English grammar (see Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1873, 
pp. 57-60 and 116; also Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, p. 23). 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM 43 

the state superintendent to arrange for the holding of teachers' 
institutes, and to secure instructors for those who were com- 
petent to impart information on the theory and practice of 
teaching. 

The powers and duties of the teachers, as in the case of the 
superintendent of public instruction, the state board of education, 
the county boards of public instruction, and the county superin- 
tendents of schools, were clearly defined by the law. Every teacher 
was authorized and directed : ( i ) to work faithfully and indus- 
triously for the growth of the pupils in subject-matter; (2) to 
labor earnestly to raise the moral tone of the pupils; (3) to 
lead the pupils, both by precept and by example, to an acquaint- 
ance with, and the practice of, the different virtues; (4) to 
require them to observe such virtues as personal cleanliness, 
neatness, orderliness, promptness, and courtesy, and to avoid 
such vices as vulgarity and profanity; (5) to cultivate in them 
a consideration for the rights and feelings of others, and the 
realization of their own duties and responsibilities as citizens ; 
(6) to see that the property of the school was not injured 
in any way; (7) to enforce the rules and regulations of the 
school in regard to the conduct of the pupils; (8) to suspend 
those who persistently violated the rules and regulations; (9) to 
hold a public examination once each term, that is, once a month ; 
(10) and, on closing or suspending the school, to turn over to 
the trustees of the school the keys and all the property, and at all 
times to conform to the rules and regulations of the department 
of public instruction. 

The System of Public Instruction. — The type of public instruc- 
tion provided by the State was primarily that of the elementary 
school. Such instruction was offered to all the children residing in 
the State between six and twenty-one years of age, the number be- 
tween these ages being determined by the tax assessors or, in 
case of their neglect, by the superintendents of schools for the 
several counties. No child could be denied this privilege except 
for gross misconduct, immorality, a disregard of, or a persis- 
tent opposition to, the regulations of the school. The schools 
were open for the instruction of the youth not less three months 
out of the year, a school month being twenty-two days of six 
hours each. No mention was made of time allotments or of 



44 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

the course or courses of study to be offered except that one half 
day in each week was to be given to some phase of needle 
work or manual labor. 

But provision was made not only for elementary, but for 
secondary and higher education also. The county boards of 
public instruction were authorized and directed to establish and 
maintain schools with a higher grade of instruction than that 
offered in the elementary schools in all localities of their respec- 
tive counties where the advancement and number of the pupils 
demanded it. As in the elementary schools, tuition here was 
to be free to all the youth of the State between the ages of six 
and twenty-one. Higher education was to be provided by the 
state board of education. This board was directed and em- 
powered to use the income from and the appropriations to the 
university or seminary fund in establishing and maintaining one 
or more departments of a state university, commencing with 
a department of teaching and a preparatory department. It was 
also to keep in view the establishment and maintenance of an 
institution for imparting instruction in the professions of teach- 
ing, medicine, and law ; in the theory and practice of agriculture, 
horticulture, mining, engineering, and the mechanic arts; in the 
natural sciences, the ancient and modern languages, and the 
higher range of mathematics; in literature, and in the useful 
and ornamental branches not taught in the common schools. The 
number of pupils to be admitted to the university, or any of its 
departments, was determined by the state board of education. 
Admission was secured by appointment from the various county 
boards of public instruction, each county being entitled to send 
pupils in the ratio that it sent representatives to the legislature. 
Those not receiving an appointment were charged a tuition fee. 

Support of the School System. — As we have already seen, 
the constitution of 1868 provided quite liberally for the support 
of the public-school system.^ It provided for the establishment 
of a state school-fund from a variety of sources," made pro- 
vision for an annual state tax of at least one mill on the dollar 
of all taxable property in the State,^" and provided also that 

8 Article IX, sections 4-8. 

9 Article IX, section 4. 

10 Article IX, section 5. 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM 45 

each county should be required to raise annually, by taxation, 
a sum equal to one-half the amount apportioned to it for that 
year from the income of the school fund." All school moneys 
received from state sources were to be distributed to the different 
counties in proportion to the number of children between the 
ages of four and twenty-one years residing- therein ; ^^ but if 
any county failed to maintain a school or schools for at least 
three months in the year, it forfeited its portion of the educa- 
tional funds of the State during such failure.^^ However, a 
legislative enactment was necessary in order to make these pro- 
visions operative. The school law of 1869 was a step in this 
direction. It demanded that the county commissioners of each 
county should levy and collect, for the support of common 
schools therein, a sum not to exceed one per cent of the assessed 
value of its taxable property. It provided that the money re- 
ceived from county taxation, as well as that received from the 
common-school fund, should be disbursed by the county boards 
of public instruction to the various schools of their respective 
counties on the basis of the average daily attendance of the 
pupils, some discretionary power being permitted in favor of 
small schools with a high average attendance. It fixed the min- 
imum and maximum school ages at six and twenty-one years, 
respectively, instead of four and twenty-one, as provided by the 
constitution. It made provision also for the safe-keeping and 
careful oversight of all the school funds. The state board of 
education was directed and empowered to have the supervision 
and control of all the educational funds of the State; the county 
boards of education were given the direction and management 
of the common-school funds of the several counties; and the 
boards of trustees were intrusted with the school moneys to be 
used in the different subdistricts. In no case, however, was any 
person allowed to receive any school money until he had given 
bond with two good securities for twice the sum that he was liable 
to have in his possession at any one time; and the county super- 
intendents of schools were directed to see that all school moneys 
received by their respective counties from state resources, as 

11 Article IX, section 8, sentence i. 

12 Article IX, section 7. 

1' Article IX, section 8, sentence 2. 



46 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

well as all moneys raised by their respective counties for school 
purposes, were applied to the objects for which they were intended. 

Some Weaknesses in the Law. — Such was the act which 
provided for the establishment and maintenance of the present 
public-school system of Florida. This school law, the product 
of the brain of Hon. C. Thurston Chase, first state superintendent 
of public instruction, was indeed a remarkable one for the time 
and the State for which it was designed. Dr. John Eaton, 
United States commissioner of education, in his report for the 
year 1876,^* said that it " embodied the best features of the older 
laws with happy adaptations of improvements which experience 
had shown to be desirable." Our analysis shows that it was 
not very far from the modern idea. However, it had weak- 
nesses. The principal ones were as follows : ( i ) It provided 
that the state and county superintendents of schools should 
be appointed by the governor of the State. (2) It did not give 
the state superintendent sufficient power to compel reports from 
subordinate officers. (3) The unit of organization for the ad- 
ministration of schools was the district. (4) It made provision 
for an annual census of the youth by the county tax assessors. 
(5) It failed to specify a course or courses of study. (6) There 
was no definite standard of qualification for the teachers and 
school officers. (7) Inadequate facilities were provided for the 
preparation and training of teachers. (8) It did not provide for 
efficient supervision. (9) It failed to provide for a tax sufficient 
to establish and maintain the schools. But, for the most part, 
these weaknesses have been overcome by the modifications which 
have from time to time been made in the law. These changes 
will be noticed in the following chapters. 

The Peoples' Reception of the Law. — This act was passed 
by a large majority in both branches of the legislature, not a 
single amendment being proposed in either. Almost every mem- 
ber of the legislature, regardless of party, had been, or later 
became, its earnest supporter and advocate. Even before leaving 
for their homes, steps v/ere taken to initiate the work of school 
organization in the several counties.^^ The measure was received 
with considerable favor by the people of the State. This seems 

^* See page 64. 

15 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 5. 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM 47 

somewhat remarkable, when we consider that a very large part 
of the members of the legislature which enacted the law con- 
sisted of negroes and typical " carpet-baggers." It was no small 
trial to the white people of the State, especially the intelligent, 
property-owning class, to find themselves disfranchised in a large 
measure, barred from membership in the legislature and other 
official positions, and living under the laws enacted by their 
former servants or by " new-comers," most of whom possessed 
nothing themselves to be taxed. It simply shows their patience 
and forbearance and the deep interest that they had come to 
feel in the matter of education. 

The Law in Operation. — As soon as the act was passed, 
January 30, 1869, efforts were made to put it into operatiori. 
The Governor, as authorized by the constitution, had already 
appointed Hon. C. Thurston Chase as state superintendent of 
public instruction; and as soon as recommendations for county 
boards of education were received from the representatives, as 
provided by the law, the state board of education proceeded 
to make the appointments for these positions. Either permanent 
or temporary county and district educational organizations began 
to be effected rather speedily. Thus, after three decades of 
waiting, Florida inaugurated, in a very short while, a public- 
school system, of which State Superintendent Chase, in a very 
hopeful spirit, said : " There is every reason to believe that the 
system will triumph, and, becoming a part of the permanent 
polity of the State, will endure to bless through party changes 
and successive administrations." ^® 

Summary 

The establishment of the present system of public education 
in Florida was made possible by certain provisions of the con- 
stitution of 1868 and the school law of 1869. 

This constitution required the legislature to provide for a 
public-school system; provided for a state superintendent of 
public instruction, a state board of education, and county school 
superintendents; established a common-school fund; ordered a 
special tax of not less than one mill on the dollar of all taxable 
16 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1870, p. 106. 



48 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

property in the State; required each county to raise annually, 
by taxation, a sum equal to one-half the amount received by 
it from the income of the common-school fund ; and required 
the legislature to provide for the distribution of the state school- 
funds in proportion to the number of youth between four and 
twenty-one years of age. 

The school law of 1869 declared that there should be estab- 
lished a uniform system of public schools; provided for a state 
board of education, a state superintendent of public instruction, 
county boards of public instruction, county superintendents of 
schools, local school trustees, treasurers and agents ; made pro- 
vision for the preparation, certification and appointment of teach- 
ers ; defined the powers and duties of the teachers, as it did 
also those of the various school officers; and provided for the 
support of the system. 

Notwithstanding the weaknesses of this law, it was far in ad- 
vance of the time and region for which it was designed. It 
passed both branches of the legislature by a large vote, and, 
considering the time and conditions under which it was enacted, 
was received with great favor by the people of the State. Very- 
little time was lost in putting it into operation. 



CHAPTER IV 
WORK OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL-SYSTEM (1868-1884) 

The Educational Situation in 1868. — In 1868, when Mr. Chase 
was appointed as the first state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion under the constitution of that year/ the educational affairs 
of Florida were certainly in a deplorable condition. Prior to 
this, the movement for public education had made considerable 
progress, as we have already seen; but, on account of the inter- 
necine conflict of the early sixties, it received a set-back from 
which it had not yet recovered. There was, at this time, a want 
of school funds, a lack of administrative organization, an almost 
total lack of suitable school buildings, textbooks, and supplies, 
a small and poorly trained teaching force, no clearly defined 
course or courses of study, no provision for secondary or higher 
education, and no suitable organic school law. These obstacles, 
together with a sparseness of population, an apathy on the part 
of many patrons, a fear among the white people that " mixed " 
schools would be forced upon them, and other serious interfer- 
ences, constituted an enormous hindrance, not only for that year, 
but for fully a decade. However, there were a few factors 
which aided and encouraged the people interested in public ed- 
ucation in their efforts. Of these the chief ones were:^ (i) 
a number of devoted and self-sacrificing teachers who continued 
their work even when their compensation was not enough to 

1 The state superintendents of public instruction who held office under 
the constitution of 1868 were : 

Hon. C. Thurston Chase July — , 1868 

Rev. Charles Beecher March 18, 1871 

Hon. Jonathan C. Gibbs (colored) January 23, 1873 

Hon. Samuel B. McLin (secretary of state and 

acting superintendent) August 17, 1874 

Rev. WilHam Watkin Hicks March i, 1875 

Hon. William P. Haisley January 6, 1877 

Hon. Eleazar K. Foster January 31, 1881 

Hon. Albert J. Russell February 21, 1884 

2 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1869, pp. 5-7. 

49 



50 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

defray their necessary expenses; (2) an appropriation by the 
General Government of about twenty-five thousand dollars for 
the construction, rental, and repair of school buildings; (3) 
gifts of several thousand dollars from certain Northern benev- 
olent associations for reviving schools that had been closed ; and 
(4) gifts from private individuals for the establishment and 
maintenance of schools. The money expended and donated by 
these agencies for 1868 amounted to more than forty thousand 
dollars. Had it not been for these gifts of labor and money, 
there would have been practically no public schools in operation 
that year. As it was, only about one hundred were opened in 
the month of October,^ and most of these were for negroes. 

The Educational Revival under Chase, i868-i8yo. — Thus we 
get some idea of the untoward educational situation which ex- 
isted in Florida in 1868. We see that during that year very 
little provision was made by the State for the education of 
its youth, and that no real interest in this matter was shown 
by the responsible classes. The principal of the common-school, 
like that of the seminary, fund had been spent during the civil 
strife for war supplies and other purposes. However, consid- 
ering itself the guardian of both these funds, the State undertook 
to pay annually to them an amount equal to what the income 
from the principals would have been had they not been spent.'* 
But the sum paid to these funds was very small — about 
twenty thousand dollars, six thousand of which went to the two 
seminaries.^ Moreover, what little income there was from the 
common-school fund was not disbursed among the several coun- 
ties for, as State Superintendent Chase said,* the want of proper 
data on which the constitution prescribed the apportionment 
should be made. The total amount expended by the State for 
the schools of that year was but a little more than twenty-five 
thousand dollars, of which six thousand were paid to the sem- 
inary fund,^ as we have just stated, and nineteen thousand 
two hundred were spent,^ according to the act to " establish 
common schools for freedmen," for the education of the negroes 

3 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 3. 

4 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1869, p. 5. 

5 Ibid., p. 4. 

6 See above, p. 31. 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 51 

of the State. Hence, very few schools were run in 1868. 
They consisted entirely of the East Florida Seminary, at Gaines- 
ville/ — the West Florida Seminary, at Tallahassee,^ having been 
suspended during the scholastic year 1868-69^ — private schools 
opened by persons of both races, schools for freedmen conducted 
under the auspices of the State, and schools, for freedmen also, 
conducted under the auspices of certain benevolent associations 
of the North.^° But by the close of the year a desire for 
genuine public education began to appear. The leader in this 
educational movement was the state superintendent of public in- 
struction, Hon. C. Thurston Chase. As already stated, it was 
he who compiled the school law of 1869 which, as we saw in 
the last chapter, provided for a uniform system of public schools ; 
it was he who instituted the new system of schools; and 
it was he who did more than any other during this period to 
perfect the administrative organization of this system, and to 
create a public sentiment in favor of common schools. 

This comprehensive scheme of universal education set forth 
in the law compiled by Mr. Chase was, in the face of the greatest 
obstacles, constantly and zealously advocated by its author. Al- 
though he did not live to see his ideal of universal education 
become a reality ,^^ it was his privilege to witness several steps 
toward this goal. The adoption of his plan for a uniform 
system of free schools, to use his own words,^" " appears to 
have reconciled, for the first time in the history of educational 
legislation in the South, the extreme views of conflicting parties 
and interests." By the close of the year in which this system 
of education was adopted, school superintendents had been ap- 

■^ This school was first opened in 1853 at Ocala (see Laws of Florida, 
7852-53, Chap. 509). Here it remained until 1866 when it was removed to 
Gainesville (see Laws of Florida, 1865-66, Chap. 1487). 

8 This school was established in 1857 (see Laws of Florida, 1856-57, 
Chap. 796). 

9 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 10. 

10 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1869, p. 5. 

11 Mr. Chase died September 22, 1870, nearly two years before the ex- 
piration of his term of office After a temporary vacancy, Rev. Charles 
Beecher, a brother of the famous Henry Ward Beecher, was chosen to 
fill the unexpired term. Mr. Beecher entered upon the duties of his office 
on March 18, 1871. 

12 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 4. 



52 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

pointed, and had qualified, in all the thirty-nine counties ex- 
cepting eleven,^* and school boards had been appointed in all 
with the exception of one, namely, Brevard, from which no rec- 
ommendations in regard to this matter had been received, as 
provided by law; organizations had been completed in twenty- 
six of the counties,^* temporary organizations having been 
formed in others ; ^^ and schools had been opened in twenty- 
seven, the private schools having generally merged with the 
public schools.^*' There were reported over two hundred fifty 
common schools in operation, with an enrollment of approx- 
imately seven thousand five hundred pupils ; a seminary fund 
of $73,933, yielding an income of about $6,000 ; a common-school 
fund of $223,595, yielding $14,145 ; a school tax in eleven of 
the twenty-seven counties in which public schools had been 
opened,^^ and private contributions for the establishment and 

13 The counties having county school superintendents were : 
Alachua Franklin Liberty St. Johns 



Bradford 


Gadsden 


Madison 


Suwannee 


Clay 


Jackson 


Marion 


Taylor 


Columbia 


Jefferson 


Manatee 


Volusia 


Dade 


Lafayette 


Nassau 


Wakulla 


Duval 


Leon 


Orange 


Walton 


Escambia 


Levy 


Putnam 


Washington 



The counties without county school superintendents were : 
Baker Hamilton Holmes Santa Rosa 

Brevard Hernando Monroe Sumter 

Calhoun Hillsborough Polk 

1* The counties having organized school boards were : 



Alachua 


Gadsden 


Madison 


Suwannee 


Bradford 


Hamilton 


Marion 


Taylor 


Clay 


Jackson 


Manatee 


Wakulla 


Columbia 


Jefferson 


Nassau 


Walton 


Dade 


Lafayette 


Orange 


Washington 


Duval 


Leon 


Putnam 




Franklin 


Levy 


St. Johns 





15 In Baker, Calhoun, Liberty, Sumter, and Volusia counties. 

16 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, pp. 5 and 17-35. 
I'i' The counties having a school tax were : 

Brevard Escambia Leon Orange 

Columbia Hamilton Levy Polk 

Dade Lafayette Marion 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 53 

maintenance of public schools in ten of the other sixteen coun- 
ties.^® Before the end of the scholastic year 1870-71, yes, 
even before the death of State Superintendent Chase in Sep- 
tember, 1870, county superintendents had been selected and com- 
missioned to act in nine of the eleven counties which were with- 
out qualified superintendents at the close of the scholastic year 
1869-70; administrative organizations had been completed in all 
but one^® of the thirteen counties which were without such 
organizations the previous year; instead of two hundred fifty 
schools, with an enrollment of approximately seven thousand 
five hundred, as was the case the year before, three hundred 
thirty-one schools had been opened, with an enrollment of about 
fourteen thousand ; and a school tax ranging from one mill 
to two and one-half mills had been levied and cheerfully paid 
in all the counties but four.^" Such progress as this would be 
creditable at a time when conditions were favorable; much more 
when occurring during a period in which there were so many 
serious obstacles in the way of educational progress. 

Hindrances to Universal Education. — But while this plan for 
universal education marked a great step in advance, it was, as 
mentioned above, hampered by many of the obstacles which in 
other parts of the South greatly delayed the establishment of 
common schools at public expense. In this chapter we shall 
endeavor to show how that during this period these hindrances 
were overcome to some extent, that there was no little improve- 
ment in the public-school system, and that by the close of the 
period there had been laid the foundation at least for a real 
system of universal education. 

Means of Support for the Public Schools. — The chief hin- 
drance in the way of progress in the pubhc-school system for 
this period was the want of proper financial support. The con- 
is The counties having their schools supported, either entirely or in 
part, by private contributions were: 

Alachua Madison St. Johns Volusia 

Clay Manatee Taylor Wakulla 

Gadsden Polk 

19 Brevard. 

20 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1871, p. 4. 



54 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

stitution of 1868 made certain provisions concerning school rev- 
enues, but these provisions remained inoperative because of the 
lack of legislative enactment to give them effect. As already 
stated,^^ what little income there was from the school fund was 
not distributed among the different counties. Consequently, the 
chief means of support consisted in an appropriation from the 
Federal Government of something like twenty-five thousand 
dollars and gifts from benevolent associations and private indi- 
viduals. The sum expended and donated by these agencies was 
a little over forty thousand dollars, which, as may be readily 
seen, was entirely inadequate for the establishment and main- 
tenance of schools for about fifty thousand children. 

The following year the constitutional provisions respecting 
revenues for common schools were made effective by the passage 
of a law entitled " An act to provide for the revenues for com- 
mon schools in accordance with the constitution." ^2 This act 
declared that — 

" Every officer who may hold or hereafter receive moneys paid as an 
exemption from military duty, or any fine collected under the penal laws 
of the State, together with twenty-five per centum of the proceeds of the 
sales of the public lands of the State which may have been received 
since the adoption of the present constitution, or may hereafter be re- 
ceived from above resources, shall pay the same to the treasurer of 
the State, to be by him placed to the credit of the common-school fund, 
any act to the contrary notwithstanding." 

Any officer neglecting or refusing to do this was to be regarded 
as being guilty of embezzlement, and fined at least twice the sum 
withheld by him, one-half of which was to go to the informer, 
and the other half to the common-school fund. The act further 
provided : 

"A special tax of one mill on the dollar of all the taxable property 
of the State shall be annually levied and collected in like manner as other 
state taxes are levied and collected, and apportioned annually for the 
support and maintenance of common schools, and for schools for the 
instruction of teachers, which schools are hereby declared to be common 
schools. ..." 

In 1869, the year in which the foregoing law was passed, 
the school expenditures amounted to about seventy thousand 

21 Vide ante, p. 50. 

22 For this act see Laws of Florida, Extra Session, 1869, p. 45. 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 55 

dollars, of which about thirty thousand were received from the 
National Government, through the agency of the Freedmen's 
Bureau, for the construction, rental, and repair of school build- 
ings,^^ nearly seven thousand dollars from the Peabody Educa- 
tional Fund,^* about ten thousand from county taxes, and about 
five thousand from private contributions. While this sum was 
considerably greater than the amount spent for public education 
the year before, it was still totally inadequate for the establish- 
ment and maintenance of schools for the children of the State. 
But beginning with 1869 there was a steady growth throughout the 
remainder of the period in the financial condition of the public- 
school system, the sum expended for public education during the 
scholastic year 1883-84, the last year of the period, being over 
two hundred thousand dollars. This growth is shown by Table III. 

From this table we see that throughout the period, with the 
exception of but three years, 1874-75, 1877-78, and 1879-80, 
there was a gradual and continuous increase in the amount of 

23 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 13. 

Twenty school buildings, costing fifty-two thousand six hundred dol- 
lars, were constructed by the National Government in 1868 and 1869. 
Eleven of these were built during the year 1869 in nine different counties, 
as follows : 

Alachua 2 Duval 2 Nassau i 

Clay I Jefiferson i St. Johns i 

Columbia i Madison i Suwannee ..... I 

The National Government also assisted in the building of two others in 
Suwannee County. 

Furthermore, assistance was rendered by paying a rental of ten dol- 
lars each on seventy-five school buildings in nine different counties, as 
follows : 

Alachua 16 Duval 9 Nassau 5 

Clay 9 Franklin 4 Orange 8 

Columbia 7 Gadsden 15 Walton 2 

This seven hundred fifty dollars, while appropriated for rent, was, as 
Superintendent Chase said, used in paying teachers' salaries. 

2* See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 14. 

The following offers of assistance were made by Dr. Sears, general 
agent of the Peabody Educational Fund: St. Augustine, $r,ooo; Jackson- 
ville, $1,000; Monticello, $700; Apalachicola, $500; Lake City, $650; 
Bartow, $300; Tallahassee, $1,000; Quincy, $600; Madison, $500; Mari- 
anna, $400; making a total of $6,500. 



56 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



TABLE III 
Progress of School Fund and Expenditures (1869-1884)* 



Years 


Invested 

common-school 

fund 


School 
expenditures 


By what 

superintendent 

reported 


1869-70 
1870-71 


^223,595.30 

c 


$ 70,000.00* 
100,914.14'* 
101,820.20* 
103,907.06-^ 
139,870.61* 

131.433.20* 


C. Thurston Chase 
Rev. Charles Beecher 


1871-72 
1872-73 
1873-74 

1874-75 
1875-76 


281,785.56 
284,671.67 
213,252.63" 

219,400.00 
229,900.00 
235,200.00 
243,500.00 
243,900.00 

246,900.00 

259,284.00* 

286,984.25 

395,184.00* 

476,184.00* 


Rev. Charles Beecher 
Jonathan C. Gibbs 
Samuel B. McLin 

Rev. W. Watkin Hicks 
Rev. W. Watkin Hicks 


1876-77 
1877-78 
1878-79 

1879-80 
1880-81 
1881-82 
1882-83 


139.340.19 
134.879-52 
140,703.60 

114,895-31 

I20,000.00''' * 
133,260.00' 
c 


William P. Haisley 
William P. Haisley 
William P. Haisley 

William P. Haisley 
Eleazar K. Foster 
Eleazar K. Foster 


1883-84 


201,820.66'' 


Albert J. Russell 



" All the figures given here have been taken from the reports of the various 
state superintendents, excepting those relating to the invested school-fund in 
1881, 1883 and 1884, and the amount expended during the year 1881-82, which 
have been taken from the reports of the state treasurer and the United States 
commissioner of education. 

** Approximately. 

" No data. 

•* This was the amount of the state apportionment and the estimated schoo 
tax collected by the various counties. The state apportionment ($59,146.50), 
however, was issued in warrants, and not all of it was realized; but just how much 
of it was realized it is impossible to say, owing to the lack of county reports. 

' Estimated from partial data. 

^ See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1874. p. 37. 

" See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1874-76, p. 88. 

* See report of state treasurer. 

* Estimated at $117,532 by State Superintendent Sheats (see Bien. Rep. of 
Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 62). 

' See Rep. of Com. of Educ, 1882-83, P- xix. 

* No reports from Calhoun, Dade, Escambia, and Holmes counties. 

The United States Commissioner of Education, in his report for 1883-84 
(p. 48), gives $172,718 as the amount expended. But this is evidently wrong 
(see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins.. 1882-84, p. 26). 

money spent for school purposes. This was due in a large 
measure, of course, to two causes. In the first place, it was 
due to the growth of public sentiment in favor of common 
schools. During this period the interest in common schools had 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 57 

SO increased that instead of only eleven counties with an average 
school tax of but one and one-half mills, as was the case in 
1870, there were in 1884 thirty-nine counties with an average 
school tax of a little over three mills.^^ In 1874 there were 
five counties which had levied a tax of six mills or more.^® 
That year, however, a law was passed fixing five mills as the 
maximal rate for the county school-tax.^^ This, of course, did 
not have much efifect upon the school receipts for the State as 
a whole, since there were so few counties afifected.^^ But five 
years later the legislature enacted a law making two and one-half 
mills the limit.^^ This did affect the school receipts, and consider- 
ably, too, since the school tax in a majority of the counties at 
that time ranged from three to five mills ; and, hence, it explains 
the decrease in school expenditures for the year 1879-80. Public 
interest in education, though, was so great that a law was passed 
in 1 88 1 fixing two and one-half mills as the minimal rate and 
four as the maximal rate.^° Immediately twenty-one counties 
increased their school tax — some to three mills, some to three 
and one-half mills, and still others to four mills. ^^ Had it not 

25 The total number. However, we are not certain concerning two of 
these counties, Dade and Hernando, as we have no record as to this 
matter; but we do know that they levied a tax of two and one-half mills 
the year previous. 

26 Lafayette, 6 ; Marion, 6 ; Monroe, 6 ; St. Johns, 7 ; and Washing- 
ton, 8. 

27 See Laws of Florida, 1874, Chap. 2030. 

28 The decrease in school expenditures for 1875-76 may be explained 
partly by this limitation, but' principally by the decrease in the assessed 
value of the property of the several counties and by the lack of contribu- 
tion from the Peabody Educational Fund. 

28 See Laws of Florida, 1879, Chap. 3100. 

30 See Laws of Florida, 1881, Chap. 3222. 

31 These counties, together with their school fax, were : 

Alachua 3 mills Nassau 4 mills 

Bradford 3 mills Orange 4 mills 

Calhoun 3 mills Polk 3 mills 

Clay 3 mills Putnam 3 mills 

Duval 3.5 mills St. Johns 3 mills 

Franklin 4 mills Sumter 3 mills 

Hernando 3 mills Volusia 4 mills 

Lafayette 4 mills Wakulla 3 mills 

Levy 4 mills Walton 3 mills 

Marion 3-5 mills Washington 4 mills 

Monroe 4 mills 



58 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

been for these two acts just mentioned, it is quite likely that 
the school tax in the different counties would have been even 
higher than it was at the end of this period. Anyway, the 
sentiment in favor of education for the masses had so grown 
that the tax-rate for common schools had more than doubled 
smce 1870. But in addition to the interest taken in public ed- 
ucation, another cause for the steady and constant increase in 
the school expenditures was the growing prosperity of the State. 
During this period the wealth of the State had more than 
doubled. In 1870 the assessed value of the property of the 
State was only $29,700,022, while in 1884 it was $60,042,655.^^ 
This increase in wealth, together with the growing interest on 
tl|.e part of the people in the educational welfare of the youth, 
went a long way in overcoming the chief hindrance to progress 
in the public-school system. 

Educational Organization and Administration. — Another hin- 
drance to educational progress during this period was the lack 
of efficient organization and administration. This was due partly 
to certain defects in the common-school law, but chiefly to 
a failure on the part of the administrative officers to carry out 
faithfully and judiciously the provisions of this law. Some of 
these defects have already been indicated.^^ However, they 
are well worth a somewhat more detailed study. 

I. The state and county superintendents of schools were ap- 
pointed by the executive head of the State. Consequently, there 
was a temptation to play politics at the expense of the schools; 
and too often this temptation proved irresistible. Men were 
chosen, not on the basis of fitness for service, but with reference 
to party affiliation, thereby working disastrous results in respect 
to the educational welfare of the youth of the State. This was 
especially true from June 8, 1868, until January i, 1877, during 
which time the government of the State was in the hands of 
a political party that was neither elected by, nor in favor with, 
the majority of the intelligent voters and property-owning people 
of the State. Hence, there were a great many who did not 
co-operate in the educational movements as they would have 

22 These figures have been taken from the Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. 
Ins., 1892-94, pp. 62-63. 
2^ Vide ante, p. 46. f 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 



59 



done, had they been in sympathy with the party in power. But 
with the beginning of the administration of Governor George 
F. Drew, a " conservative," as a member of the opposing party 
was then called, there was an increased interest, and, therefore, 
increased progress in the public-school system. 

2. The county superintendents of schools were not compelled 
to keep proper records and to make complete reports to the state 
superintendent. As a result, many of the county superintendents 
failed to perform their duty in this respect. In nearly every 
report of the state superintendent of public instruction, especially 
during the first half of the period, this criticism was made, and 
in many cases it was suggested that a law be enacted compelling 
these officers to keep systematic records and to make satisfactory 
reports. No such law, however, was passed, but with the ex- 
ercise of greater care in the selection of the county superin- 
tendents, more accurate, reliable, and immediate records were 
kept, more satisfactory reports were made, and hence greater 
efficiency in the common schools was promoted. 



TABLE IV 

Number of Counties Reporting to the State Department of Education 

( 1870-1884) =54 





No. of 


No. of 




No. of 


No. of 


Years 


counties 


counties not 


Years 


counties 


counties not 




reporting 


reporting 




reporting 


reporting 


1870 


28 


II 


1878 


39 





1871 


36 


3 


1879 


39 





1872 


32 


7 


1880 


39 





1873 


37 


2 


1881 


b 




1874 


25 


14 


1882 






187s 




a 


1883 


30 


9 


1876 


b 


b 


1884 


37 


2 


1877 


39 












" No data as to the exact number, but Superintendent Hicks says that many 
failed to make any report. 

* No data. 

3* The figures of this table have been taken from the reports, of the 
various state superintendents of public instruction. Note the large num- 
ber of counties which failed to report previous to 1877. The reports that 
were sent in were unsatisfactory, being very unsystematic and apparently 
very incomplete. 



60 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



3. Provision was made in the school law of 1869 that the 
census of the school population in each county should be taken 
by the county tax assessor once every year. This was a duty 
which should have been required of an officer over whom the 
county board of public instruction exercised direction and con- 
trol, say, the county superintendent of schools ; and instead of 
the enumeration being taken annually, it should have been taken 
about once every four or five years. But since this task was as- 
signed to one who had no such connection with this board, the cen- 



TABLE V 

Number of Counties Reporting Their Census Returns to the State 
Department of Education (1870-1884) ^s 





No. of 


No. of 




No. of 


No. of 


Years 


counties 


counties not 


Years 


counties 


counties not 




reporting 


reporting 




reporting 


reporting 


1870 


28° 


II 


1875 


e 


e 


1871 


26" 


13 


1876 


37/ 


2 


1872 


6 


6 


1880 


39» 





1873 


24"= 


IS 


1884 


37 


2 


1874 


25'^ 


14 









" Several of the reports from these counties were incomplete. 

* The State Superintendent says that very few returns were forwarded to the 
state department of education. 

" The reports from two of these counties were incomplete. 
^ Probably more. 

* The State Superintendent says that very few returns were received. Many 
of those that were received later were very incomplete. 

^ The returns from one county were deficient; from two, inaccurate. 
The returns from some of these were incomplete and inaccurate. 

sus was oftentimes either not taken at all or the census records 
were very inaccurate and incomplete ; and since the enumeration 
was taken annually instead of quadrennially or quinquennially, it 
called for the expenditure of money which should have been 
spent for teachers' salaries and school buildings. A majority 
of the state superintendents of schools, and many of the county 
superintendents, suggested that the school law be amended so 
as to provide for the taking of the school census by the county 

^5 The figures of this table have been taken from the reports of the 
several superintendents of public instruction. 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 61 

superintendents ; and many of them suggested also that the 
enumeration be taken every five years instead of once every 
year. Had such amendments been made, it would have resulted 
in greater accuracy and completeness in the census returns and 
a large saving in expenses. However, the law was amended in 
1874^*' so as to provide for the taking of the census in 1876, 
and quadrennially, instead of annually, thereafter. This resulted 
in somewhat more satisfactory census returns, lessened the 
school expenditures considerably, and, hence, made for greater 
educational progress. 

4. The members of the board of public instruction in each 
county were appointed by the state board of education on the 
recommendation of the representatives of the county and the 
nomination of the county superintendent of schools; and the 
maximal number of the board was fixed at five. In 1882 State 
Superintendent Foster suggested that this mode of appointment 
should be changed.^'^ Had they been selected in a diflferent 
manner, say, elected by the qualified voters of the county, it 
would, in all probability, have resulted in better qualified mem- 
bers, since they would have been selected more with reference 
to their fitness for the work than with reference to the ones to 
whom they had given, or promised to give, their political sup- 
port. Also, had the maximal number been reduced to three in- 
stead of five, as was recommended by four of the state super- 
intendents,^^ this would have diminished the expense and, as ex- 
perience has shown, increased their efficiency. No such change 
was made in the law; but during the administration of State 
Superintendent Haisley, and apparently thereafter, the state 
board of education reduced the number of members of the 
various county boards from five to three, save in a few of the 
most densely inhabited counties. This plan, says Superintendent 
Haisley,^® worked well, and saved the State nearly fifteen hun- 
dred dollars a year — another aid to educational progress. 

5. Instead of making the county treasurer of each county the 
treasurer of its school fund, the general provisions on schools 

36 See Laws of Florida, 1874, Chap. 2008, p. 82. 

37 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1881 and 1882, p. 23. 

38 Beecher, Gibbs, Haisley, and Foster. 

39 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, p. 3. 



62 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

provided for the appointment of this officer by the county board 
of education. Consequently, this increased the school expenses 
more than was necessary. In 1877 a law was passed making 
the county treasurers of the dififerent counties of the State the 
custodians of the school funds of their respective counties.*^ 
" This law," says Superintendent Haisley,^^ " has fully met my 
expectations,*^ and been a saving of at least twenty-five per cent 
to the school fund, as compared to the amount paid treasurers 
under the old law." This change was undoubtedly conducive 
to greater efficiency in the schools. 

6. The qualifications of the county school superintendent were 
not defined. Hence, men were frequently chosen for this most 
important office in the public-school system who were almost 
entirely unqualified for the position. They were selected with- 
out any reference to their personal qualities, their academic and 
professional preparation, their sympathy with the system, and 
their practical experience in school work. Although some of 
them were well qualified, and were faithful and zealous in the 
performance of their duties, a great majority of them were 
totally unfit for the work, and altogether incapable of perform- 
ing the duties involved. This is quite evident from the letters 
and reports sent to the state superintendent. It is not sur- 
prising, then, that the schools did not, in many cases, attain a 
higher standard, and that quite a number of people regarded 
the office of county superintendent as useless and involving an 
unnecessary expense. In this connection Hon. Samuel B. McLin, 
acting superintendent of public instruction, in his report for the 
year ending September 30, 1874, uses the following language : *^ 

" One of the best methods of securing county superintendents would 
be to create a state board of examiners, and require of each aspirant for 
this office a certificate of merit from said board before making his 
appointment. It is a solecism in our school system, that while no teacher 
is employed or paid without due examination and Hcensure, no credentials 
or qualifications are required of the man who conducts the examination, 
and issues or refuses to issue the certificate. It is submitted that this is 
neither reasonable nor safe, for the wise provision of the law in requiring 

40 See Laws of Florida, 1877, Chap. 2085. 

41 See op. cit., p. 2^. 

42 It was Superintendent Haisley who recommended this change. 

43 Vide pages 53-54- 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 63 

proof of the fitness and competency of teachers, is obviously liable under 
such conditions to be negatived and nullified in any county at any time. 
Some evidence of competency, some tangible proof of the possession of 
proper qualifications and capacity to discharge its duties, should be made 
a condition of eligibility to the office of county superintendent. Either let 
it be divested of its natural attributes and rendered worthless as an edu- 
cational force, or let the door be closed against v^rorthlessness and in- 
competency." 

7. And lastly, the unit of organization for administering the 
school system was the district, that is, a subdivision of the county 
having usually but one school. The administration of the ed- 
ucational affairs in this relatively small area was entrusted al- 
most entirely to a board of trustees consisting of not more than 
five members and appointed by the county board of education 
on the recommendation of the patrons. To this board was 
delegated such powers and duties as the erection, rental, and 
repair of school buildings, the employment of teachers,** the 
oversight of instruction and the disciplining of pupils — powers 
and duties which should be given to none but competent men. 
As to the effects of this system, they were readily apparent. 
It is needless to mention them here, for they have been pointed 
out by our educators for the last fifty years or more. It may 
be said, however, that the men selected as trustees were usually 
very incompetent and inefficient; they were short-sighted, un- 
progressive, and, still worse, men of very low ideals. The 
system was unnecessary, expensive, and stood in the way of 
uniform educational progress. Such advancement as was made 
during this period was made, not because of, but in spite of, 
the district school trustees. 

Thus we have noticed the defects in the school law which 
constituted a hindrance to educational progress. But a greater 
hindrance than these, perhaps, was the failure to administer this 
law faithfully and judiciously. Speaking along this line, Gover- 
nor Drew, in his message to the legislature, January i, 1877, 
said : *° 

4* The common-school law virtually gave the trustees the power to 
employ the teachers, for section 19, clause 4, of the law required that 
the county board of public instruction in each county should employ such 
teachers as were satisfactory to the trustees. 

*5 See Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1876, p. 65. 



64 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

" Our public-school system, though a good one in the main, is not' 
without its fault's and imperfections, among which may be named a tend- 
ency in its practical working to draw an undue portion of the funds 
to the towns and more densely populated localities, while the sparsely 
settled and remote portions of the large counties are deprived of the 
benefits. A plan is now under consideration which, it is believed, will 
lessen, if not remove, that defect. Other slight changes, with a view of 
lessening the expense of operating and increasing the fund for distribu- 
tion, may be made when it can be done to advantage. But where there 
can be no change without crippling or destroying the efficiency of the sys- 
tem, no change should be attempted. There has been more injustice 
done by failure to comply with and faithfully carry out the provisions of 
the law than from any defect of the system itself. Section 13, paragraph 
6, of the common-school law requires the superintendent of public in- 
struction to apportion, annually, the interest of the common-school fund 
and the fund raised by the one-mill tax authorized by sections 4 and 5 
of article 8 of the constitution among the. several counties of the State, 
in proportion to the number of children residing therein between the ages 
of 4 and 21 years. General provisions on schools, section 38, provide that 
it shall be the duty of the tax assessor of each county, at the time of 
assessing the taxes of his county, to take the census of all the children of 
the county between the ages of 4 and 21. It appears from the accompany- 
ing report of the superintendent of public instruction that the census has 
not been taken since 1873. The work was begun in 1876, but not com- 
pleted. The census records of 23 counties only are found in the office 
of the department. There must have been a large increase of scholastic 
population since 1873 ; consequently an apportionment made on 74,228, 
the number at that time, is incorrect." 

Another weakness in this connection was the great influence 
played by party pohtics in the selection of school officers and 
in the performance of their duties on the part of these officers. 
Too frequently men were chosen, not because of their compe- 
tency and worth, but because of their political opinions and party 
affiliations ; and oftentimes, so Hon. McLin tells us,*® did the 
county superintendency fall into the hands of men who pros- 
tituted it to their political advancement or pecuniary gain. As 
he says,*'' " This should not be ... . The interests involved 
are too weighty, the results too far-reaching, to be sacrificed 
to such base purposes." Public education should have no con- 
nection whatever with either sectarianism or partisanship ; but 
all who are in any way connected with the public-school system 
should be chosen on the basis of their fitness to do the work 
required of them, regardless of their religious and political beliefs. 

46 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub Ins., 1873-74, P- 53- 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 65 

Still another weakness was the lack of a strong bond and a 
helpful relation between the state and local educational authori- 
ties. Section 13, clause 3, of the school law of 1869 provided 
that the state superintendent of public instruction should call 
meetings of the county superintendents and other school officers 
for the purpose of imparting and obtaining information and 
suggestions on the practical workings of the school system. It 
appears from the annual reports of the state superintendents 
that no such meetings were held. However, in 1877 the state 
board of education, believing that a visit by the state superin- 
tendent to each county in the State would greatly promote the 
efficiency of the school system, decided to use the five hundred 
dollars per annum which had been appropriated up to that time 
as a contingent fund to the state superintendent's office in de- 
fraying the expenses of such a tour. Superintendent Haisley 
visited all the counties of the State once every two years, met 
with and instructed each of the county boards of public instruc- 
tion in respect to the proper construction of the law and their 
official duties, and thus strengthened the bond between the state 
and local authorities, and stimulated an interest and enthusiasm 
that could not have been brought about, perhaps, in any other 
way. His official tour of the State in 1877 was the first that 
had ever been made. His successors, however, did much along 
this line, and otherwise, in strengthening the bond of those en- 
gaged in a common work and in popularizing the public schools. 

Other weaknesses were the failure of the tax assessors to take 
the census of the youth, of the county commissioners to levy 
an adequate tax, and of the county superintendents of schools 
to make accurate reports to the state superintendent of public 
instruction. But with the exercise of greater care in the selection 
of these officers, the increase of public sentiment in favor of 
common schools, and greater effort on the part of the central 
authorities to be of help to the local authorities, these weak- 
nesses were almost entirely overcome by the close of the period. 

The School Plants. — Still another obstacle to educational 
progress during this period was that arising from the want of 
suitable school plants. As a rule, the number of school buildings 
was entirely inadequate to accommodate the children of school age ; 
and what buildings there were, were exceedingly poor. Most 



66 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

of them were small, built of indifferent materials, badly con- 
structed, unfavorably located, and almost completely devoid of 
necessary equipment. 

In 1869 there was almost a total lack of suitable school 
buildings and equipment. Speaking of the obstacles in the way of 
progress in the common schools for that year, the superintendent 
of Alachua County, Mr. S. F. Halliday, in his report to the 
state superintendent of public instruction, has this to say : *" 

" The want of suitable school buildings is another serious obstacle. 
Several of the schoolhouses in this county are made of logs, and that in 
the coarsest and rudest manner. Some are destitute of fire-places or 
stoves. The pupils during the inclement weather being uncomfortable, of 
course cannot apply themselves closely to their studies." 

In another place he says : *^ 

" It is estimated that there are still about six hundred youth, who are 
not attending school for want of suitable accommodations." 

Another superintendent, Mr. J. C. Emerson, of Nassau County, 
says in his report to the state superintendent : *^ 

"... There are seven schools in operation. . . . 

" Two are considered comfortable and convenient ; the others need fur- 
niture, blackboards, and most of the appliances usually employed as aids 
to instruction." 

Still another county school superintendent, Mr. James H. Went- 
worth, of Taylor County, speaking of the schoolhouses in his 
county, says in his report to the state superintendent of public 
instruction : *^ 

" The 8 in use are provided by the citizens free of rent. Each has a 
broom, a drinking-cup, and a well of good water. Four have water- 
buckets; three have chairs and tables for the teachers; one is well seated. 
None have any apparatus or blackboards. All are without outhouses. 
Very considerable repairs are needed." 

Many others could be quoted, but these quotations are enough 
to show the deplorable condition of the school buildings and 
equipment in the State for the year 1869. 

This condition of the school plants was due, of course, chiefly 
to apathy on the part of the patrons, the lack of finances, and 

47 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 18. 

48 Ibid., p. 30. 

49 Ibid., p. 33- 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 67 

inefficiency on the part of the school officers. So with greater 
interest in pubHc education, increased prosperity of the people, 
and better qualified county school boards and county school 
superintendents, there was a decided improvement in both the 
quantity and quality of the school plants in the. several counties. 
While there was never a time during the period in which there 
were adequate and suitable accommodations for all the children 
of school age, there were a number of counties in which much 
progress was made along this line. Mr. John F. Bartholf, county 
superintendent of Manatee County, in a letter to Jonathan C. 
Gibbs, state superintendent of schools, October 8, 1873, says:^" 

" We are erecting some fine frame schoolhouses, well filled up with 
desks, seats, teacher's stand, etc., the first in this county — as heretofore 
our schools have been kept in some old log outbuilding or other, badly 
exposed to the weather, and almost entirely destitute of proper desks 
and seats." 

Rev. W. Watkin Hicks, state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion, in his biennial report submitted to Governor M. L. Stearns 
on December 31, 1876,^^ says that there were some excellent 
school buildings in Florida. Another county superintendent, 
Mr. A. Crenshaw, of Volusia County, in his report to the state 
superintendent, December 15, 1880, states that there was a dis- 
position on the part of the patrons to improve the school build- 
ings and to supply more needed furniture.^^ And Hon. E. K. 
Foster, state superintendent of public instruction, in his biennial 
report for the school years 1881 and 1882,^^ says that in many 
localities excellent school buildings were being erected and fur- 
nished with a view to the health and comfort of the school 
children. 

The following table will partially show what was done during 
this period in the way of providing suitable school buildings. 

The Courses of Study. — A fourth hindrance to progress in 
the common schools for this period was that arising from the 
lack of outline courses of study. For nine years there was 
absolutely nothing done, either by the state or local authorities, 

50 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1873, p. 49. 

51 See page 95- 

52 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, p. 53. 

53 See pages 21-22. 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



TABLE VI 
The Number of Schools Operated and Total Value of School Prop- 
erty (1869-1884)5* 



Years 


Number of 


Value of 


Years 


Number of 


Value of 




schools 


property 




schools 


property 


1869-70 


250" 




1877-78 


992 


$ii6.934<* 


1870-71 


331 




1878-79 


1,050 




1871-72 


444 




1879-80 


1,131 


I32,729« 


1872-73 


511 




1880-81 


1,165 




1873-74 


557" 




1881-82 


1,234 




1874-75 


508* 




1882-83 


1-479 




1875-76 


675= 




1883-84 


1,504 


210,115-'' 


1876-77 


887 











" Estimated from partial data. 

* No reports as to the number of schools from nine counties. Estimated at 
664 by Superintendent Sheats. 

" No reports from fifteen counties. Estimated at 770 by Mr. Sheats. 
■^ See Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1878, p. xvi. 
« See Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1880, p. xxii. 
/ See Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1883-84, p. xxi. 

in formulating suggestive courses or plans for the guidance of 
the teachers.^^ The content of the courses offered, therefore, 
differed greatly, not only among the different counties of the 
State, but also among the various schools in the same county. 
As a rule, the curricula were very narrow, consisting simply of 
reading, writing, arithmetic, and spelling ; a few schools, however, 
taught some geography and English grammar. The teaching of 
any other subjects was very much discouraged by some. Even 
State Superintendent Haisley recommended " that no other 
branches be introduced except in the cities and larger towns, 
where special charters have been granted to allow the citizens 
to tax themselves in order to support schools of higher grades." ^® 
There were others, though, who were opposed to limiting the 

5* The figures of this table have been taken from the report's of the 
various state superintendents, excepting those in regard to the value of 
the school property. 

55 Not until 1877 was anything undertaken in this connection. That 
year the state superintendent of public instruction, Hon. Wm. P. Haisley, 
at the request of the state board of education, outlined some courses of 
instruction for the schools, but they were introduced that session in only 
eight schools, four white and four colored. 

56 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, p. 23. 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 69 

public schools simply to these branches. They believed that the 
elementary schools should be utilized to the fullest possible ex- 
tent as a means, of benefiting all classes of students. As a 
result of their efforts, by the close of the period the courses of 
instruction in many of the schools had become considerably 
broader. Instead of including simply reading, writing, arithmetic, 
and spelling, they included, in addition to these subjects, English 
composition, physical and political geography, United States 
history, and the outlines of general history. This enrichment 
was a great help in raising the standard, and in promoting the 
progress, of public education. 

Textbooks Used. — Closely connected with the want of proper 
courses of study was the want of suitable textbooks. Speaking 
on this point, Rev. Charles Beecher, state superintendent of 
public instruction, in his report for the year ending September 
30, 1871, says: ^^ 

" Next to the financial obstacles to educational progress is that arising 
from the want of suitable textbooks. A large proportion of the people, 
if not a majority, are not able to buy. Consequently, a large number of 
the pupils are destitute of textbooks. Those who are supplied exhibit 
almost every variety of textbooks known. In the language of one of 
the county superintendent's, ' the pupils are furnished by their parents with 
every description of books, such as they could pick here and there; the 
only book of one kind much in use being Webster's Elementary Spelling- 
book.' The miscellany would be laughable if it were not so harassing 
and painful to both teacher and pupils." 

Language very similar to Mr. Beecher's was used by many of 
the county superintendents of this period, and by all the other 
state superintendents, with the exception of Mr. Chase and Mr. 
Russell.^* Let us notice, for example, some words which State 
Superintendent Foster penned ten years later : ^^ 

" It has been my observation, in visiting such schools as I have in the 
State, that their efficiency has been very much retarded by the want of 
uniformity in the textbooks used, this being especially the case in the 
country schools. One teacher informed me that in a school of twenty- 
seven pupils there were twenty-three different kinds of textbooks, many 
of them being old and for the most part by different authors; this fact 
compelled him to have nearly twenty classes. No little expense is caused 

s'^ See page 6. 

58 Gibbs, McLin, Hicks, Haisley, and Foster. 

59 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1881 and 1882, p. 22. 



70 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

to the parents by teachers endeavoring to introduce books of their own 
choice, and instances have come to my knowledge where textbooks adopted 
by a county board have met with such opposition from the teachers as to 
render such adoption almost nugatory." 

Thus we see that the lack of suitable texts was not confined 
just to a few counties and for a short period of time, but that 
it was almost state-wide and extended throughout the period. 

How to overcome this serious drawback to the progress of 
education constituted one of the most perplexing problems of 
the time. Various solutions were proposed, one of which was 
state adoption of a uniform series of textbooks at the public 
expense. In this connection, State Superintendent Beecher 
writes : '^'^ 

"... The law provides that there shall be a uniform series for the 
State. Such a series has been selected. But how can it be introduced? 
Thus far it has but added to the confusion. It is impossible, in view 
of the slender means of the people, to force the series in at their ex- 
pense. It must be done at the public expense. I therefore strongly recom- 
mend the passage of an act making it the duty of boards of pubhc instruc- 
tion to include this in their itemized estimate of annual expenses as now 
required by law ; and prohibiting the use, after September 30, 1872, of any 
textbooks, except those of the state series. The books to be not the 
private property of individual pupils, but the property of county boards, 
for the use of schools, parents or guardians being held accountable for 
their injury or loss, provided that parents who prefer to purchase for 
their children or wards be encouraged to do so." 

Hon. Samuel B. McLin, however, in his report for the year 
ending September 30, 1874,"^ points out the impropriety of the 
adoption of a uniform series of texts for the entire State. After 
calling attention to the fact that state uniformity of textbooks 
was " becoming more and more questionable every day, partic- 
ularly in those states distinguished for efficient school systems 
and educational advancement," he says: 

"... For us to adopt a state series would, we think, be supreme folly, 
because we are without the money necessary to put books into the hands 
of every child attending school, and only in this way could the adoption 
of a state series be secured. It is estimated that it would cost four 
dollars to provide each child with books, and with a total school at- 
tendance of 20,000 it would require an outlay of $80,000. This is a 

60 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1871, p. 6. 

61 See page 5°- 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 71 

financial impossibility, and even were it possible, the wisdom of adopting 
a uniform series would not be apparent'. The matter, we think, should 
be left entirely with the county boards; and with us judicious action on 
the part of these boards would secure uniformity to the extent, at least, 
of giving a oneness of character to the textbooks used in each individual 
school, or the schools of each county." 

This plan of leaving it to each board of public instruction to 
select the texts for its own county was the one favored by most 
of the people of the State. Hence, the state boards of educa- 
tion, while they preferred state adoption to county adoptions, 
did not attempt to force the adoption of a common series 
throughout the State. Uniform texts were recommended, but 
the control of this matter was left entirely to the county author- 
ities. The textbooks recommended by the state boards were 
gradually adopted by the local boards of education. As early 
as 1872, Superintendent Halliday, of Alachua County, speaking 
of the uniformity of textbooks, said:®^ 

" We have made considerable progress to this desirable end during the 
last year. The books adopted by the state superintendent are generally in 
use in our schools. ..." 

The following year Superintendent Eagan, of Madison County, 
in a letter to the state superintendent of public instruction, wrote : ®^ 

" The board has adopted the system of textbooks recommended by 
your department, and is making considerable progress in introducing them 
into the different schools. ..." 

Also in 1880 Superintendent Henry N. Felkel, of Leon County, 
reported : ^'^ 

"The textbooks used in the schools of the county are the same as 
adopted by the former board of public instruction, and are made up 
partly of the American and partly of the National Series. ..." 

That same year Superintendent Grenshaw, of Volusia County, 
stated : ^° 

" I am informed that there is much more uniformity in the books 
in use in the schools, and am gratified to find a willingness on the part of 
most of the patrons to purchase the books recommended by the board." 

62 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1872, p. 18. 

63 See Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1872-73, p. 48. 
6* See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, p. 44. 
^^Ibid., p. 53- 



72 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

By act of March i, 1883,^® county boards of public in- 
struction that had not provided for uniform textbooks in their 
schools were required to meet on the seventh day of May of 
that year and adopt a series of textbooks for use in them for 
at least five years, said series to be obligatory on the trustees 
and teachers of their several counties. Another act of the 
same date prohibited dealing in school books on the part of 
any school officer or teacher.^^ 

Thus we see that by the close of this period considerable prog- 
ress had been made in the way of securing more suitable text- 
books. While the condition of things was still far from satis- 
factory, this obstacle to educational advancement, which had ex- 
isted throughout the period, had, at least, been partially overcome. 

The Population. — A further obstacle to progress in the pubHc 
schools was the scattered population. In 1870, according to the 
United States census, the population of Florida was only 187,748, 
an average of three per square mile; in 1880, only 269,493, an 
average of less than five per square mile; and in 1884, according 
to the state census, it was but 338,406, an average of less than 
six per square mile. Moreover, there were portions of the State 
which were almost completely uninhabited. Many of the patrons 
lived in such remote and sparsely settled places that it was prac- 
tically impossible for them to receive any benefits from the com- 
mon schools. It is apparent, therefore, what a serious obstacle this 
sparsity of the population must have been to the educational 
progress of the State. 

The Teaching Staff. — Perhaps the greatest barrier to the suc- 
cess of the common schools of the State, excepting the lack of 
adequate funds, was the insufficient number of competent and 
efficient teachers. To be sure, there were a few excellent teachers 
employed by the several county authorities, as is evidenced by 
some of the reports of the state and county superintendents ; but 
the great majortiy of the teaching staff of the State, especially 
during the first half of the period, consisted of men and women 
who had no professional preparation whatever for their work, 
and no academic preparation beyond the elementary branches, 
such as spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic. United States his- 

68 See Laws of Florida, 1883, Chap. 3446. 
67 See Laws of Florida, 1883, Chap. 3456. 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 73 

tory, English grammar, and geography. The county authorities 
were oftentimes simply compelled to maintain a low standard of 
qualification in regard to the teachers or else let the schools go 
untaught. In many instances persons were employed who pos- 
sessed absolutely no certificate of qualification. " Of these," 
says Superintendent McLin,^^ in his report for the year ending 
September 30, 1874, " three out of every four are unfit for the 
place they occupy, in respect to scholarship, methods and prin- 
ciples of teaching, general intelligence, and ability to organize 
and govern a school." 

This condition was due largely to two causes. In the first 
place, there was almost no provision for the preparation of 
teachers. The school law of 1869 authorized and directed the 
state board of education to make such provision, but nothing 
was done by this board. Among the first steps taken in this 
direction were the establishment of model schools in various 
parts of the State and the offering of teacher-training courses 
by a few secondary and some of the best elementary schools.^® 
In this connection Florida was greatly assisted by the Peabody 
Educational Fund." From 1868 to 1884, inclusive, the State 
received $68,700 from this fund/^ a large part of which was 
expended in the training of teachers. The conditions on which 
this aid was given were that the schools should have an enroll- 
ment of one hundred pupils each, a teacher for every fifty, an av- 
erage attendance of not less than eighty per cent of the number en- 
rolled, and that they maintain a ten months' term.''^ The schools 
which complied with these terms in 1869, and received their 
portion of the munificence, were: The Peabody School at 
St. Augustine, Duval School at Jacksonville, Lincoln Academy 
at Tallahassee, The Peabody School at Lake City, and the schools 
at Monticello, Apalachicola, Bartow, Ouincy, Madison, and Mar- 
ianna.'^^ Other schools which later did likewise were: Union 
Academy at Gainesville, The Sears School at Key West, Pensa- 

68 See page 45- 

69 There is no record as to the content of these courses. 

70 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 14; 1872, p. 4; 1873, p. 7; 
1878-80, pp. 15-16, 34; 1880-82, pp. 17-18. 

71 See Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1884-85, P- LXXIX. 

72 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1880-82, p. 18. 

73 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 14. 



74 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

cola Academy in Pensacola, Tampa Institute in Tampa, Howard 
Academy in Ocala, Waukeenah High School in Waukeenah, three 
other schools in Jacksonville, and the schools in Archer, New- 
sansville, and Live Oak. 

Prior to 1880 there were no other schools within the State, 
in addition to the ones just mentioned, which offered courses 
to those planning to teach. Beginning with 1877, however, pro- 
vision was made whereby a few could receive this training out- 
side of the State.'^* Through the munificence of the trustees 
of the Peabody Educational Fund, three two-year scholarships 
in the normal department of Nashville University, Nashville, 
Tennessee, worth two hundred dollars each per annum, were 
offered to the white teachers of Florida. But the time of notice 
being short, only two persons availed themselves of the oppor- 
tunity. Two years later five new scholarships were granted, 
and in 1880 the number was increased to ten.^^ 

While these provisions mentioned in the two paragraphs above 
helped considerably in improving the quality of the teaching 
staff of the State, what was needed, as had been pointed out 
by many of the county, and by all the state, superintendtents, 
was a good normal, or teacher-training school. On this point 
Superintendent Haisley, in his biennial report for 1876-78, 
writes : '^^ 

"... An institution of this character . . . would soon give to many 
sections well qualified and accomplished teachers, and at the same time 
stimulate effort and application on the part of others now engaged 
in this work." 

But no teacher-training schools were established before 1880. 
That year the East Florida Seminary, in accordance with the 
law which had just been passed, established such a school. '^'^ In 
1883 a similar school was established in the West Florida Sem- 
inary. These schools, or rather departments, were open to any 
white person of good moral character, over fifteen years of age, 
properly prepared, and intending to teach. Tuition in them was 
free to all who would pledge themselves to remain in the de- 

74 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, p. 18. 

75 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, p. 16. 
'■^ See page 20. 

77 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, p. 56. 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 75 

partments for two years, and, after that time, to teach in the 
schools of the State for at least two years/® These were the 
only teacher-training schools prior to the administration of Su- 
perintendent Russell, except a colored normal of one month's 
duration that was conducted in Tallahassee during July, 1883.^'' 
Another cause of the incompetencey and inefficiency which 
prevailed among the corps of teachers of the State was the lack 
of provision for the improvement of those already in service. 
The chief attempt along this line was the holding of teachers' 
institutes. But while the importance of this seems to have been 
recognized from the very beginning of the period, nothing was 
done until 1879. That year Superintendent Haisley, during his 
second official tour of the State, organized the first institute for 
teachers. He tells us®° that one of the reasons for canvassing 
the State was to organize and meet with the teachers in institutes 
whenever it was thought practicable to accomplish anything in 
this direction. He further states that he found most of the 
superintendents and teachers ready to enter into this type of 
work, and that he was convinced that such meetings could be 
made a success. Though it was possible for him to give but 
a small part of his time to this work, he was able to effect 
organizations in Duval, Hernando, Marion, Nassau, Orange, 
Santa Rosa, Suwannee, Washington, and other counties. Most 
of the teachers of these counties were enrolled. The meetings 
were well attended, not only by those directly connected with the 
schools, but by others as well. After this they grew rapidly 
in favor. The legislature of 1883, in making appropriations for 
educational purposes, appropriated one thousand dollars for the 
holding of teachers' institutes for that and the succeeding year.®^ 

■^8 The number enrolled under these conditions was very small, the 
enrollment for the scholastic year 1883-84 being but twenty-five— fifteen 
in the West and ten in the East Florida Seminary; the total number en- 
rolled that year in the normal departments was only forty-three— eighteen 
in the former and twenty-five in the latter. 

■^^9 This school and the normal departments in the two seminaries, to- 
gether with four institutes each for whites and negroes, were supported by 
a legislative appropriation in 1883 of $4,000 each for that and the suc- 
ceeding year (see Laws of Florida, 1883, Chap. 3448)- 

80 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1778-80, p. 2. 

81 See Laws of Florida, 1883, Chap. 3447- 



76 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

The state superintendents for the remainder of the period, Mr. 
Foster and Mr. Russell, took up this important work, visiting 
annually many of the counties, and personally organizing and 
conducting institutes for teachers. By the close of the period 
organizations had been effected in most of the counties. 

This lack of worthy and well-qualified teachers in Florida may 
also be attributed to the remote and sparsely populated school 
districts, the want of suitable places for the teachers to board, 
and the low salaries offered; for cultured, well-trained, and ex- 
perienced teachers who are willing to live in remote and out of 
the way places, without any of the advantages of cultivated and 
refined society, and who are contented to teach in unequipped 
and dilapidated school buildings at a very small remuneration, 
are seldom found ; and, as Superintendent McLin says in his 
report for the year ending September 30, 1874,®^ " in a great 
majority of instances such has necessarily been the prospect held 
out by county boards and superintendents, with every application 
for competent teachers." We can readily see, therefore, why the 
county authorities were oftentimes forced to employ, as teachers, 
those without suitable training and experience. 

Evidences of Educational Progress. — But, while there were 
many serious obstacles to universal education in the State, the 
movement for public education had made considerable progress 
by the close of the period. The schools had grown in public 
favor; the school expenditures had almost quadrupled; the ad- 
ministrative organization had become much more efficient ; the 
number of schools operated had increased seven-fold; the con- 
dition of many of the school plants had greatly improved; the 
courses of instruction in quite a number of the schools were 
much broader ; the textbooks used were more suitable ; provisions 
were being made for the preparation and training of those plan- 
ning to teach ; and more competent and efficient teachers were 
employed. Other evidences of this progress were the increase 
in the enrollment of the school population, in the average daily 
attendance, in the length of the school term, and in the salaries 
paid the teachers. These evidences are seen in the following table. 

All these indications of educational progress which we have 
mentioned were destined to be even more marked in the succeed- 

82 See page 45. 



WORK OF THE SYSTEM 



77 



TABLE VI [ 

Statistics Concerning School Population, Number Enrolled, Average 
Daily Attendance, Length of School Term and Sal- 
ary Paid the Teachers (1869-1884)^^ 











Average 


Average 




School 


School 


Average 


length 


monthly 


Years 


population 


enrollment 


daily 


of school 


salary 








attendance 


term 
in days 


of the 
teachers 


1869-70 


4i,900'» 


7,500*" 


4.957 




$30.00 


1870-71 


62,869= 


14,000'' 








1871-72 




16,258 








1872-73 




19,196 









1873-74 




20,911* 








1874-75 




19.439* 








1875-76 




26,052" 


16,720^ 






1876-77 


72,985" 


31.133'' 


21,782'* 


80.0 


26,36 


1877-78 




36,961* 


23.933' 


77-5 




1878-79 




37.034' 


25,601' 


82.S 




1879-80 


71,782* 


39.315' 


27,046' 


76.0 




1880-81 


74.213' 


30,548'" 


19.729'" 


72.0 


33-40 


1881-82 




51.945'' 


24.923'" 


81.0 




1882-83 




n 


32,586" 






1883-84 


82,863P 


58,311'' 


35.881'' 


82.0 





" No report from eleven counties. 

* Estimated from partial data. 

" Number of youth between the ages of four and twenty-one years, according 
to the United States census for 1870. 
"^ No report from three counties. 

* No report from fifteen counties. 

^ No report from fourteen counties. 

» Number of youth between the ages of six and twenty-one years, according to 
the state census for 1876. 

* No report from two counties. 
» No report from four counties. 
' No report from one county. 

* Number of youth between the ages of six and twenty-one years, according 
to the state census for 1880. 

' Number of youth between the ages of six and twenty-one years. 

"* No report from twelve counties. 

" No data. Estimated at 51,749 by Superintendent Sheats (see Bien. Rep. of 
Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 63). 

" No report from thirteen counties. 

P Number of youth between the ages of four and twenty-one years, according 
to the state census for 1884. 

83 The figures given here have been taken from the various reports 
of the state superintendent of public instruction. 



78 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

ing period, 1884-92. These we shall notice in the following 
chapter. 

Summary 

In 1868 the educational affairs of Florida were in a very poor 
condition. There were but few competent and efficient teachers, 
no suitable textbooks, almost a total lack of administrative or- 
ganization and material equipment, a want of financial support, 
and no suitable organic school law. 

But during the administration of Superintendent Chase, the 
first state superintendent of public instruction, considerable prog- 
ress was made. A good school law was enacted; administrative 
organizations were effected in all the counties but one ; the num- 
ber of schools was increased from two hundred fifty to three 
hundred thirty-one ; the enrollment was nearly doubled ; and 
the sentiment in favor of public education was greatly increased. 

Throughout the period there were many hindrances to ed- 
ucational progress. The principal ones were: insufficient funds, 
the lack of efficient organization and administration, the want 
of suitable school plants, no well-defined curricula, the lack of 
proper textbooks, the scattered population, and the small num- 
ber of trained and experienced teachers. 

However, by the close of the period the movement for common 
schools had made no little progress. All the educational hindrances 
mentioned above had been partially overcome, and Florida was 
beginnin? to realize her ideal of universal education. 



CHAPTER V 

PROGRESS OF THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM (1884-1892) 

In this chapter we shall notice the progress that was made 
in the pubHc-school system of the State from 1884 to 1892, 
inclusive. The chief changes, as we shall see, were those effected 
by the constitution of 1885 and the school law of 1889. Let 
us first examine the educational provisions of the constitution. 

I. Constitution of 1885 

Pursuant to the act of the legislature of the state of Florida, 
approved February 12, 1885, entitled " An act calling a con- 
stitutional convention and providing for electing delegates to the 
same," a convention met at Tallahassee from June 9 to August 3, 
1885, ^^^ framed a new constitution, which was ratified by popu- 
lar vote on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, 
i886j and went into effect January i, 1887.^ 

Article on Education. — As will be seen, the article on education 
in this constitution is more detailed than the one of 1868. It 
contains the following provisions, to-wit : ^ 

"Section i. The legislature shall provide for a uniform system of 
public free schools, and shall provide for the liberal maintenance of the 
same. 

" Section 2. There shall be a superintendent of public instruction, 
whose duties shall be prescribed by law, and whose term of office shall be 
four years and until the election and qualification of his successor. 

" Section 3. The governor, secretary of state, attorney general, state 
treasurer, and state superintendent of public instruction shall constitute 
a body corporate, to be known as the state board of education of Florida, 
of which the governor shall be president, and the superintendent of public 
instruction secretary. This board shall have power to remove any sub- 
ordinate school oflficer for cause, upon notice to the incumbent; and shall 
have the management and investment of the state school-funds under 
such regulations as may be prescribed by law, and such supervision of 
schools of higher grades as the law shall provide. 

1 For this constitution see Journal of the Proceedings of the Consti- 
tutional Convention of the State of Florida, 1885. 

2 See Article XIL 

79 



80 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

'■ Section 4. The state school-fund, the interest of which shall be ex- 
clusively applied to the support and maintenance of public free schools, 
shall be derived from the following sources : 

" The proceeds of all lands that have been or may hereafter be 
granted to the State by the United States for pubhc-school purposes. 

" Donations to the State when the purpose is not specified. 

" Appropriations by the State. 

" The proceeds of escheated property or forfeitures. 

" Twenty-five per cent of the sales of public lands which are now 
or may hereafter be owned by the State. 

" Section 5. The principal of the state school-fund shall remain sacred 
and inviolate. 

" Section 6. A special tax of one mill on the dollar of all taxable 
property of the State, in addition to the other means provided, shall be 
levied and apportioned annually for the support and maintenance of 
public free schools. 

" Section 7. Provision shall be made by law for the distribution of 
the interest of the state school-fund and the special tax among the sev- 
eral counties of the State in proportion to the number of children residing 
therein between the ages of six and twenty-one years.^ 

" Section 8. Each county shall be required to assess and collect 
annually for the support of public free schools therein, a tax of not less 
than three mills nor more than five mills on the dollar of all taxable 
property in the same.* 

" Section 9. The county school-fund shall consist, in addition to the 
tax provided for in section eight of this article, of the proportion of the 
interest of the state school-fund and of the one mill state tax apportioned 
to the county; the net proceeds of all fines collected under the penal 
laws of the State within the county ; ^ and all capitation taxes collected 
within the county; and shall be disbursed by the county board of public 
instruction solely for the maintenance and support of public free schools. 

3 This section was amended in 1894 to read as follows : " Provision 
shall be made by law for the apportionment and distribution of the in- 
terest of the state school-fund and all other means provided, including the 
special tax, for the support and maintenance of pubHc free schools, among 
the several counties of the State in proportion to the average attendance 
upon schools in the said counties respectively." 

* An amendment to this section fixing the maximal rate of millage at 
seven instead of five mills was proposed by the legislature in 1903, and 
ratified by the people in 1904. Another amendment fixing the maximal 
rate at ten instead of seven mills was proposed in May, 1917, and adopted 
in November, 1918. 

5 Since 1894 all fines and forfeitures collected in each county have been 
given, by implication of Article XVI, section 9, as amended that year, to 
the general county fund rather than to the county school-fund. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 81 

" Section lo. The legislature may provide for the division of any 
county or counties into convenient school districts; and for the election 
biennially of three school trustees, who shall hold their office for two 
years, and who shall have the supervision of all the schools within the 
district; and for the levying and collecting of a district school tax, for 
the exclusive use of pubHc free schools within the district, whenever a 
majority of the qualified electors thereof that pay a tax on real or per- 
sonal property shall vote in favor of such levy; Provided, That any tax 
authorized by this section shall not exceed three mills on the dollar in 
any one year on the taxable property of the district. 

"Section ii. Any incorporated town or city may constitute a school 
district. The fund raised by section ten may be expended in the district 
where levied for building or repairing school houses, for the purchase 
of school libraries and textbooks, for salaries of teachers, or for other 
educational purposes, so that the distribution among all the schools of the 
district be equitable. 

" Section 12. White and colored children shall not be taught in the 
same school, but impartial provision shall be made for both. 

" Section 13. No law shall be enacted authorizing the diversion or the 
lending of any county or district school-funds, or the appropriation of 
any part of the permanent or available school-fund to any other than 
school purposes; nor shall the same, or any part thereof, be appropriated 
to or used for the support of any sectarian school. 

" Section 14. The legislature at its first sesion shall provide for the 
establishment, maintenance, and management of such normal schools, not 
to exceed two, as the interests of public education may demand. 

" Section 15. The compensation of all county school officers shall be 
paid from the school fund of their respective counties, and all other 
county officers receiving stated salaries shall be paid from the general 
funds of their respective counties." 

Changes Made in the Educational System. — As is evident, 
there were several important changes effected in the public-school 
system. The principal changes from the constitution of 1868 
are those pertaining to the support of the schools. The matte? 
of providing for this support was no longer left, as it was in 
the earlier instrument, to the caprice of succeeding legislators. 
The new constitution stated definitely what funds should be set 
apart for a permanent state school-fund ; it provided for a def- 
inite state tax, and for the distribution of this tax, together 
with the interest of the state school-fund, among the different 
counties in proportion to the number of youth residing therein 
between the ages of six^ and twenty-one years ; it fixed a minimum 

6 According to the constitution of 1868 (Art. IX, Sec. 7), this dis- 
tribution was to be made on the basis of the number of children between 
the ages of four and twenty-one years. 



82 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

and maximum rate for an annual school tax in each county at 
three and five mills, respectively ; ^ it provided that the fines 
and the per capita tax collected in each county, in addition to 
the county school-tax and the county's proportion of the interest 
of the state school-fund and of the one-mill state-tax, should 
constitute a part of the county school-fund,^ to be expended by 
the county board of public instruction " solely for the mainte- 
nance and support of public free schools " ; and it further pro- 
vided for a district school-tax of not more than three mills on 
the dollar, whenever a majority of the qualified electors of any 
district who paid a tax on real or personal property should vote 
in favor of such levy,^ 

Other changes in the school system were as follows : ( i ) The 
new constitution provided for a state board of education, con- 
sisting, as it still does, of the governor, secretary of state, at- 
torney general, state treasurer, and state superintendent of pub- 
lic instruction, of which the governor was to be president, and 
the superintendent of public instruction secretary.^'' (2) It spec- 
ified some of the powers of this board.^^ (3) It provided for 
" the division of any county or counties into convenient school 
districts " ; (4) for a district school-board of three members, 
who were to be elected by the people, hold their office for two 
years, and " have the supervision of all the schools within the 
district "; ^^ and (5) that cities and incorporated towns might 
constitute school districts.^^ (6) The state superintendent of 
public instruction was to be elected quadrennially by the qualified 
voters of the State, at the same time as the other officers of the 
executive department of the State, the first election to be held 
in November, 1888;^- and (7) the county superintendents of 

"^ The constitution of 1868 (Art. IX, Sec. 8) simply required each 
county to raise annually, by taxation, a sum equal to at least one-half 
the amount apportioned to it for that year from the income of the com- 
mon-school fund. 

8 Under the constitution of 1868 (Art. IX, Sec. 4) the fines and the 
per capita tax formed a part of the state school-fund. 

3 No provision was made in the constitution of 1868 for such tax. 

10 Under the constitution of 1868 (Art. IX, Sec. 9) the state board of 
education consisted of the state superintendent of pubhc instruction, secre- 
tary of state, and attorney general, and had for its president the state su- 
perintendent. 

11 There was no such provision in the earlier instrument. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 83 

public instruction were to be elected for a term of four years 
by the qualified electors of their respective counties.^^ (8) It 
required that an " impartial provision " should be made for the 
education of the white and colored children. (9) It formally 
guarded against coeducation of the races by the requirement 
of separate schools for the colored children. (10) It required 
that no part of any county or district, school-funds should be 
used otherwise than for school purposes ; and (11) that no 
public-school money should go for sectarian schools. (12) It 
made it mandatory upon the succeeding legislature to provide 
for two normal schools. (13) And finally, it required that all 
county school officers should be paid out of the school fund 
of their respective counties. 

Most of the foregoing changes need no comment. However, it 
is interesting to note the ones relating to the selection of the state 
superintendent of public instruction, the selection of the county 
superintendents, the support of the common schools, the number 
of members constituting a local, or district, school-board, and 
the provision for higher education. Practically all of these, as 
you will notice, are indicative of progress. But they were not 
universally regarded as such. For example, the sections relating 
to local taxation met with determined and persistent opposition, 
not only on the part of several members of the convention, but 
also on the part of some of the leading newspapers of the 
State. Among the editors the most bitter opponent, perhaps, 
was Hon. John Temple Graves, editor of the Daily Herald of 
Jacksonville. In one of his long editorials he stated that the 
" school crank " of the convention^* was endeavoring " to con- 
fiscate the property of the State to educate negroes with," and 
that such large school funds were entirely unnecessary for the 
education of the youth of the State.^^ Among the delegates to 

12 Article IV, section 20. Under the constitution of 1868 (Article V, 
section 17) the state superintendent of public instruction was appointed 
by the governor with the consent of the senate. 

13 Article VIII, section 6. Under the constitution of 1868 (Article V, 
section 19) county superintendents of schools were appointed by the 
governor for a term of two years. 

1* He was doubtless referring to Hon. W. N. Sheats, then superin- 
tendent of schools in Alachua County, who was the author of all but one 
of the constitutional provisions on education. 

15 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 43-45. 



84 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

the convention there were quite a number who also thought 
that there was no need of so much money for educational pur- 
poses. With regard to the section providing for an annual 
county school-tax, some held that the minimal rate should be 
fixed at two mills instead of three; some advocated a minimal 
and maximal rate of one mill and three mills, instead of three 
and five, respectively ; some wanted to simply specify the max- 
imal rate, putting that at four mills instead of five; and some, 
while favoring the limits proposed by the committee on educa- 
tion, three to five mills, thought that no county school-tax should 
be imposed upon a people unless a majority wanted it. After 
several amendments had been offered, the section was adopted, 
as originally drafted, though with a small majority. But with 
regard to the section providing for a district school-tax, there 
was even greater opposition in the convention. However, as in 
the case of the former provision, the convention, following an 
imperative demand from the people, wrote this one also into 
the constitution of the State.^^ 

Such were the educational provisions of the constitution of 
1885, which, as already stated, passed into force January i, 1887. 
The influence of these provisions upon the growth of the schools 
and all school interests will be seen later. We shall now notice 
some of the provisions of the new school law. 

II. School Law of 1889 

This " new law," as it was aftewards called, was framed 
by Hon. Albert J. Russell, state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion.^^ It differed in several respects from previous educational 
acts, the chief differences being those regarding the administra- 
tive organization and financial support of the public-school sys- 
tem. In the first place, the administrative organization of the 
school system was changed in many particulars, being made less 
cumbersome, much simpler, more efficient, and less expensive ; 
and, in the next place, the system was put on a better finan- 
cial basis. 

16 For the attitude of the members of the convention in regard to the 
educational provisions of the constitution see Journal of the Proceedings. 

17 It was entitled " An act 'to establish a uniform system of common 
schools and county high schools." Approved June 8, 1889. For this 
act see Laws of Florida, 1889, Chap. 3872, pp. 73-^4- 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 85 

Changes in Administrative Organisation. — The officers of the 
school system were a state board of education, a state super- 
intendent of public instruction, a board of education and a 
superintendent of schools for each county, local school super- 
visors and treasurers. The state board of education stood at 
the head of the system, forming a kind of general council on 
educational matters, with specified powers and duties. It was 
composed of the following state officials : the governor, who 
was its president; the state superintendent of public instruction, 
who was its secretary ; the state treasurer, who was its treasurer ; 
the secretary of state, and the attorney general.^* The state 
superintendent was the principal administrative officer of the 
system, having general supervision of all matters pertaining 
thereto. The county boards of education administered the pub- 
lic-school affairs of their respective counties. A county board 
consisted of not more than three members,^'* no two of whom 
could reside in the same commissioner's district,^*^ and all of 
whom were appointed by the state board of education, after 
being nominated by the state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion. ^^ The powers and duties of this body were much the same 
as before, the principal differences being that it was charged 
with sole authority to employ and assign teachers ; was still to 
establish and maintain schools in the county, but such schools 
were not to be located nearer than three miles to each other, 
unless for some local reason or necessity ; was directed " to 
prescribe, in consultation with prominent teachers, a course of 
study for the schools of the county " ; and was empowered to 
locate and maintain one or more county high schools. The 
county superintendent of public instruction was the chief ed- 
ucational officer of the various counties, his powers and duties 
being practically the same as under the old law. The local 

18 Under the old school law the state board of education was composed 
of the state superintendent of public instruction, secretary of state, and 
attorney general. 

19 Prior to this the limit was five instead of three. 

20 There was no provision in any previous educational act as to the 
residence of the members. 

"1 Prior to this " the recommendation of the representatives from the 
county " was required in addition to " the nomination of the superin- 
tendent of public instruction." 



86 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

school supervisors were the legal successors of the old local 
school trustees. There was one for each school, who was 
appointed by the county board of education on the recommen- 
dation of the patrons.-- His duties were mainly supervisory 
in character. He was directed to superintend the construction, 
rental, and equipment of the school plant; to oversee the 
making of repairs and improvements ; to take the census of 
the school population; to supervise the work of the school; 
to procure for the teacher a copy of the school laws and 
the regulations and decisions of the state department of pub- 
lic instruction; to assist the teacher in matters of discipline; 
and to make reports to the county superintendent of schools and 
the county board of education. And finally, there were the 
treasurers of the dififerent county school-funds. But in this 
respect we find no change from the law already existing, for 
the county treasurers of the several counties of the State were 
the custodians of the school funds of their respective counties, 
and this had been the case since 1877.^^ 

Another change respecting the administrative organization of 
the public-school system was the the provision for the establish- 
ment of special school-districts, known as " subdistricts." The law 
provided that, upon the petition of one-fourth of the tax-paying 
voters in any election district, or incorporated town or city, the 
county board of education could, if it saw fit, hold an election 
to determine whether such election district, town, or city should 
be made a special school-district.^* Whenever such a district 
was created,^^ three school trustees were elected therein at a 
time fixed by the county board of education, and every two years 
thereafter. These trustees constituted a corporate body, with 
the usual powers, for the purpose of performing their duties, 
which were both financial and supervisory in character. Acting 
under the direction of the county board, they supervised the 

22 The old local school-boards consisted of not more than five members, 
all of whom were appointed by the county board of education, after being 
nominated by the county superintendent of schools, and recommended by 
the patrons. 

23 See Laws of Florida, 1877, Chap. 2085, p. 22. 

24 Such an election could not be held oftener than once in every two 
years. 

25 This required a majority of the tax-paying voters. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 87 

work of each school in their district, and reported to the 
board at its regular monthly meetings ; they were also directed 
and empowered to receive and hold the school fund of their 
district. 

'Changes in School Support. — As to the means of support for 
the public-school system, there were also important changes, the 
most important of which were the provisions for local taxation. 
The law provided that each county board of education should, 
on or before the last Monday in June of each year, make out 
and lay before the county assessor of taxes an itemized estimate 
of expenditures to be incurred for educational purposes during 
the next ensuing scholastic year, the amount of money required 
being stated in so many mills on the dollar of all taxable prop- 
erty in the county, which millage had to be not less than three 
nor more than five ; that the county assessor should assess the 
amount so stated ; and that the collector should collect the 
amount assessed and turn it over monthly to the county treasurer, 
who was also by law the treasurer of the county school-funds. 
It further provided that, upon the application of one-fourth of 
the tax-paying voters in any special school-district, the county 
board of education could, if it thought best, cause an election 
to be held, to determine whether a district school-tax, the rate 
of which had to be specified in the application and notice of 
election, should be assessed and collected on all taxable property 
of the district ; "^^ and that in case such a tax was ordered-^ it 
should be levied and collected in the same manner as other taxes, 
but the money collected was to be kept separate and paid over 
to the school trustees, who were the custodians of the district 
school-funds. 

Result of the Changes. — Such were the principal changes 
made in the general school law of 1889, which went into oper- 
ation after the beginning of the school year 1889-90. The in- 
trenchment of the above-mentioned educational provisions in the 
organic school law of the State, thereby insuring better admin- 
istration and greater school revenues, was followed by an in- 

26 Such an election could not be held earlier than January the first 
nor later than April the first of any year; nor could it be held oftener 
than once in every two years. 

27 This required a majority of the tax-paying voters. 



88 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

creased growth of the schools and of all educational interests 
in the State. The actual result of these provisions will be 
seen in the remainder of this, and the following, chapter. We 
shall now turn our attention to the progress of the schools 
during this period. 

III. Progress of the Public-School System 

Hon. Albert J. Russell, who had served as state superintendent 
of public instruction since February 21, 1884, was reappointed^® 
in 1885, and elected by the people in November, 1888,^^ 
thus serving continuously from the twenty-first of February, 
1884, until the third of January, 1893, a term of nearly nine 
years. During this long administration considerable progress 
was made in the public-school system, as is evidenced ( i ) by the 
willingness of the people to support it by taxation, (2) by a 
more efficient administrative organization, (3) by better and 
more adequate school facilities, (4) by broader courses of study, 
(5) by a more competent teaching staff, (6) by a more exten- 
sive system of public instruction, and (7) by the increased 
school attendance. Let us notice these evidences of educational 
advancement somewhat in detail. 

Financial Support of the School System. — The chief indication 
of growth and advancement in the system of public instruction 
was the persistent and unabated growth of interest which the 
people throughout the State manifested in the work of the 
schools. Never before had there been such a manifestation of 
public interest in school affairs. Old prejudices were gradually 
allayed; the schools began to have a new significance; and the 
public conscience was quickened into a broader conception of 
duty in respect to the education of all the youth. The people 
everywhere, even those who had stood aloof from the public 
schools, became more and more appreciative of their possibilities 

28 Under the constitution of 1868 the state superintendent of public 
instruction was appointed by the governor with the consent of the sen- 
ate. Mr. Russell was first appointed by Governor William D. Bloxham; 
he was reappointed by Governor Edward A. Perry. 

29 Under the constitution of 1885 the state superintendent of public 
instruction was to be chosen by popular vote, beginning with the general 
election on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, 1888, 
and thereafter on the corresponding day of every fourth year. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 



TABLE VIII 

Progress of State School-fund and Expenditures for Public-school 

Purposes (1884-1892)30 





Invested 
school 
fund 


Total 

amount 

expended 

for 

schools 


Amount expended per capita of 


Years 


Total 
population 


School 
population 


Ave. daily 
attendance 


1884-85 
1885-86 
1886-87 
1887-88 

1888-89 
1889-90 
1890-91 
1891-92 


$490,784 
522,284 

546,984 

555.684 
569.684 
595.484 
595.984 


^35.984 
309,890^ 
449.299 
484,110 

476,490 
516,532 
564,304 
537,235^ 


$o.99« 
1.34' 

I.28<^ - 

1.44' 
1.34" 


$4.05" 

4.26'* 

4.i9<* 

4.46' 
4.01'' 


$8.00 

9.11 
8.43' 

9.25<= 
8.63' 



<* Based on the state school-census of 1884. 

* No report from two counties. 
'^ Approximately. 

■^ Based on the state school-census of 1888. 

' Based on the United States census of 1890. 

■^ The amount received for public-school purposes, according to State Superin- 
tendent Russell, was $638,710.07 — $6,063.53 from fines, etc.; $34,542.23 from the 
state school-fund; $53,496.00 from the poll tax; $85,235.25 from the state one- 
mill tax; and $459,373.06 from county taxes. However, Superintendent Sheats 
says that the amount received was $579,150.54 (see Bien. Rep. Supt. Pub. Ins., 
1892-94, pp. 66-67). 

" Approximate expenditure. 
According to the figures given by Superintendent Russell, the school revenue 
per capita of total population was $1.58; according to the figures given by Superin- 
tendent Sheats, $1.44. 

* Approximate expenditure. 

According to the figures given by Russell, the school revenue per capita of 
school population was $4.75; according to the figures given by Sheats, $4.32. 

* Approximate expenditure. 

According to the figures given by Russell, the school revenue per capita of 
average daily attendance was $10.25; according to the figures given by vSheats, 
fe.37. 

30 The figures given here in regard to the state school-fund and the 
total expenditures for public-school purposes have been taken from the 
various reports of the state superintendent of public instruction, the state 
treasurer, and the United States commissioner of education. Those 
concerning the expenditures per capita of total population, school popu- 
lation, and average daily attendance have been obtained by dividing the 



90 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

and increasingly loyal to them. The surest sign of their con- 
tinued and increasing loyalty and appreciation was the constant 
and steady increase in the amount of money expended annually 
for public-school support. This is shown by the table on the 
foregoing page. 

As is shown in Table VIII, there were but two scholastic years 
from 1884 to 1892, 1888-89 and 1891-92, in which the public- 
school expenditure did not exceed that of the year just preceding. 
It also shows that during this period the annual expenditure 
for public-school purposes had nearly doubled. Of course, this 
increase was due partly to the growing prosperity of the people, 
for during this time the assessed value of the property of the 
State had increased from $60,042,655 to $98,568,014.='^ However, 
as the table shows, it was due principally to the growth of public 
sentiment in favor of universal education, for the annual ex- 
penditure for public schools had increased some faster than the 
school population and the average daily attendance, and much 
faster than the total population and the wealth of the State. 
But the sentiment of the people with reference to public ed- 
ucation is made still more evident if we examine how they taxed 
themselves for the support of the schools. This is shown in 
the table on the next page. As will be seen in this table, there 
had been, during the period 1884-92, such a growth of public 
interest in common schools that the number of counties willing 
to tax themselves up to the maximum limit of five mills had 
increased from five in 1886-87 to seventeen in 1891-92; the 
number contented with the minimum of three mills had decreased 
from fifteen to seven; and the number levying less than the 
requirement had decreased from six to nothing. Thus is spoken 
in unmistakable terms the growth of public interest in the work 
of the common schools ; and this, we repeat, constitutes, per- 
haps, the chief evidence of growth and advancement in the pub- 
lic-school system of the State. 

Educational Organisation and Administration. — Another in- 
dication of growth and advancement in the public-school system 

total amount expended by the total population, school population, and 
average daily attendance, respectively, which are given in Table XII, on 
page 108. 

31 For these figures see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, 
pp. 62-63. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 



91 



for this period was the increased efficiency in educational or- 
ganization and administration. Several of the unsatisfactory 
conditions with reference to school organization and adminis- 
tration which existed at the end of the last period had been, 
by the close of this one, either partly or entirely overcome. For 
example, (i) the schools were not as much subordinated to 



TABLE IX 

How THE Counties Taxed Themselves for the Support of Schools 
During the Period 1884-1892 ^2 





1884- 
1885 


1886- 
1887 


1887- 
1888 


1888- 
1889 


1889- 
1890 


1890- ■ 1891- 
1891 1 1892 


Number of counties levying 
the maximum 5 mills 

Number levying more than 4 
but less than 5 mills 

Number levying 4 mills (max- 
imum in 1884-85) 

Number levying more than 3 
but less than 4 mills 

Number of counties levying 
the minimum 3 mills 

Number levying 23^ mills 
(minimum in 1884-85). . . . 

Number levying less than the 
county requirement 




9 
8 
9 
10 
3 


5 

3 

12 

4 

15 



6 


7 
4 

14 
9 

10 

I 


7 

6 

17 

2 

13 




7 
7 

17 
3 

II 






16 
6 

II 
7 
4 

I 


17 

7 
8 
6 

7 






Total number of counties. . . . 


39 


45 


45 


45 


'45 


45 45 



politics, the officers being chosen more with respect to fitness 
than party affiliation. (2) The powers and duties of the various 
officials were more definite. There was not so much unnec- 
essary overlapping, of which so many had complained during 
the period just preceding. (3) There was a longer tenure for 
county superintendents of public instruction. Instead of being 
appointed for a term of two years, they were, after 1887, chosen 
for a term of four years. This was undoubtedly a move in the 
right direction, because, as experience has shown, it usually re- 
quires at least three years for a new superintendent to get his 
bearings and to plan and execute an educational policy that is 
productive of good results. (4) The size of the county boards 
of public instruction was, beginning with the scholastic year 

32 The figures given here have been taken from the various reports 
of the state superintendent of public instruction. 



92 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

1889-90, reduced from five to three members — another good 
move, for it resulted not only in greater administrative efficiency, 
but also in an annual saving of about two thousand dollars. 
(5) Though far from perfect, the records and reports of the 
different school officers for this period were much more com- 
plete, immediate, and reliable than they were during the previous 
one. (6) In some respects the law was administered more 
faithfully and judiciously. For instance, (a) more competent 
men were usually appointed as school officers; (b) prompter 
and more accurate census returns were made; (c) and, as a 
rule, there was a more just distribution of the common-school 
funds, greater consideration being given to the educational needs 
of the remote and sparsely settled place; and so on. (7) There 
was also a stronger bond and a more helpful relation among 
the school authorities, which was made possible very largely 
by the state conventions of the county superintendents and other 
school officers, the first of which was held in 1886, and annually 
thereafter. The meetings were well attended; problems of their 
profession were discussed ; and, it is needless to say, proved quite 
profitable. (8) And finally, there was a more important unit of 
organization for the administration of the system of common 
schools, for in June, 1889, the State abandoned the district for 
the county unit. After that all the schools, urban as well as 
rural, were regarded by law as county schools, and placed under 
the direction and control of the county boards of public instruc- 
tion. This was certainly far better than the old district system 
of school organization and administration. It resulted in a saving 
of expense, a larger per cent of competent and efficient members 
of the school boards, increased co-operative action on the part 
of the trustees, and in a greater equality of schools, support, 
supervision, educational facilities, types of instruction, and quality 
of teaching. 

The School Plants. — Still another sign of progress in the com- 
mon schools for this period was the advancement made in respect 
to the school plants. There was a decided advance in both 
quantity and quality. Not only was there a steady and persistent 
increase in the number of schools and amount of equipment, 
but also a gradual and continuous improvement in the quality and 
condition of the same. The buildings were more favorably lo- 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 



93 



cated, better constructed, and more suitably equipped. They 
were erected and furnished with more regard to the health and 
comfort of the teachers and pupils, greater attention being 
given to the matter of heating and lighting, ventilation and san- 
itation, school equipment and teaching appliances. Hon. Albert 
J. Russell, state superintendent of public instruction, in his an- 
nual report ending September 30, 1890, says: 

"... There have been organized and operated forty-four new schools 
during the year, which have been suppHed with new buildings, furniture, 
and appHances. ... It is a matter of deep interest and a cause of con- 
gratulation to witness the passing away of the crude old-time school- 
houses, and, taking their places, the new and more comfortable, better 
ventilated, lighted, and pleasant schoolhouses ; the pupils are more thor- 
oughly interested and excited to higher and nobler things, and the people 



TABLE X 

The Number of Schools Operated and Total Value of School Prop- 
erty (1884-1892)33 





Number of schools 




Years 








Total value of 










school property 




White 


Black 


Total 




1884-85 






1,724 


^250,000" 


1885-86 






1,919 


300,000" 


1886-87 


1.590 


513 


2,103 


435.149* 


1887-88 


1.736 


513 


2,249 


451.805" 


1888-89 


1. 69 1 


582 


2,273 


475.356"^ 


1889-90 


1,746 


587 


2.333 


573.862^ 


1890-91 


1.747 


601 


2,348 


600,248^ 


1891-92 


1.774 


594 


2.368 


637.058" 



" Approximately. 

* No returns from Dade, DeSoto, Hernando, Jackson, Lee, Manatee, Osceola, 
Pasco, Sumter, Volusia, and Wakulla counties. 

'^ No returns from Jackson, Volusia, and Wakulla counties. 

■^ Approximately. Obtained by subtracting the amount said to have been 
expended for sites, buildings, furniture, etc., during the following year, from the 
total value of the school property for that year. 

* No returns from DeSoto, Jackson, and Lafayette counties. 
•^ No returns from DeSoto, Jackson, and Lake counties. 

" No returns from DeSoto and Jackson counties. 

33 The figures of this table have been taken from the reports of the 
state superintendent and the United States commissioner of education. 



94 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

of the districts have new sources of pride stimulated by these very 
pleasant innovations upon the past, and are more concerned and in- 
terested. It is a fact that school privileges are ample in Florida. The 
immigrant cannot make a home in the State nov^r but that he will find the 
schoolhouse door open to his children, and in convenient distance, unless 
he should choose to settle in some unsurveyed part of the State, and 
even these parts are rapidly yielding to the increasing population." 

Though the last two sentences of this quotation should be taken 
with a grain of allowance, it is quite certain that during Super- 
intendent Russell's administration a decided improvement was 
made in the matter of school plants. The foregoing table will 
give us some idea as to what was done along this line. 

The Courses of Study. — A fourth sign of progress in the 
public-school system is seen in the improvement that was made 
in the courses of study. Though no well-constructed plans were 
evolved, either by the state or county authorities, for the guid- 
ance of the teachers, the curricula, as a rule, became richer in 
content and, in a few cases, a little better adapted to th^ needs 
of the pupils. In most of the schools there was a course in 
reading, writing, elementary arithmetic, spelling, primary geog- 
raphy, outlines of United States history, and the history of 
Florida; in some of the schools there was, in addition to the 
courses just mentioned, a course in physical and political geog- 
raphy, elements of bookkeeping, English grammar and compo- 
sition, outlines of general history, and a more advanced course 
in arithmetic and United States history; and in every school 
there was, by the close of the period, a course in elemen- 
tary physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the 
physical, intellectual, and moral effects of alcoholic stimulants 
and narcotics.^* The courses of instruction were prepared by 
the different county boards of education, in consultation with 
some of the leading teachers.^! At first there were practically 
no schools in which the courses were graded; but in 1889 an 
effort was made to grade them properly. ^^ As a result of that 
effort, graded schools sprang up rapidly during the last three 
years of the period. They were generally of eight grades, each 

34 The school law of 1889 made it obligatory upon the county boards 
of education to require elementary physiology and hygiene to be taught 
in every public school in their respective counties. 

35 This was required by the school law of 1889. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 95 

grade requiring one year for its completion. By the end of the 
period there were quite a number of schools in which the 
courses of study were not only broader and more numerous, 
but also tolerably well graded. This, as you readily see, meant 
a great deal in the improvement of the public-school system 
and the efficiency of its work. 

The Teaching Force. — Perhaps the best evidences of educa- 
tional progress during this period, except the cheerful will- 
ingness of the people to tax themselves for the support of the 
schools, was the increased number and efficiency of the teaching 
force. Instead of 1,653 teachers, only 73 of whom held first- 
grade certificates,^*' as was the case in 1884-85, there were, in 

An applicant for a certificate of any grade, before being eligible for 
examination, was required to produce satisfactory evidence of being of 
strictly temperate habits and maintaining a good moral character (see 
School Law of 1889, section 26). 

An applicant for a third-grade certificate was examined in reading, 
writing, elementary arithmetic, spelling, primary geography, United States 
and Florida history, physiology and hygiene, and the theory and practice 
of teaching. No certificate was issued unless the applicant made a 
general average of at least seventy-five (75) per cent (see Regulations 
of Department of Public Instruction, 1889), 

36 Teachers' certificates were of three grades (first, second, and third), 
the standard of qualification for all three being fixed by the state superin- 
tendent of public instruction. The second- and third-grade certificates 
were granted by the county boards of public instruction, and were good 
for just one year, and only in the county in which they were issued. 
The first-grade, or state, certificates were granted by the state superin- 
tendent, and were good in any part of the State during the time specified 
therein (see School Law of 1889, sections 24-25). 

An applicant for a second-grade certificate was examined in the same 
branches required for a third grade, and, in addition to these, in arith- 
metic (complete), advanced geography, English grammar and composition, 
outlines of general history, and the elements of bookkeeping. A 
general average of eighty (80) per cent or more was required (see Regu- 
lations of the Department of Public Instruction, 1889). 

First-grade certificates were issued only to graduates of normal 
schools and approved colleges (without examination) and to successful 
teachers who held second-grade certificates and, on examination in the 
branches usually taught in the high schools of that period, made an 
average grade of at least eighty-five (85) per cent. There were no 
exceptions to this rule unless the state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion had strong and satisfactory reasons for the same (see Regulations 
of the Department of Public Instruction, i^ 



96 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



1891-92, 2,782 teachers, over 500 of vv'hom held such certificates.^'^ 
Of course, there was never a sufficient number of really com- 
petent teachers, but throughout the period there was a steady 
and persistent increase in the number of those engaged to teach, 
and a gradual improvement in their fitness for service. 

The following table shows the increase in the number of 
teaching positions filled during the period. 



TABLE XI 

The Number of Teaching Positions Filled (1884-1892)28 



Years 


Number of teachers 


Years 


Number of teachers 




White 


Black 


Total 


White 


Black 


Total 


1884-85 
1885-86 
1886-87 
1887-88 


1.739 
1.793 


579 
620 


1.653 
1.838 
2,318 
2.413 


1888-89 
1889-90 
1890-91 
1891-92 


1. 718 
1.849 
1.956 
2,006 


694 
661 
685 
776 


2,412 
2,510 
2,641 
2,782 



Generally speaking, the teachers employed during the latter 
part of the period were better equipped, personally, profession- 
ally, and socially, than those employed at the beginning of the 
period ; they were more enthusiastic and energetic, more re- 
sourceful and self-reliant; had a better command of the subject- 
matter and better training for the special task of teaching ; were 
more co-operative and more determined in their pursuit of ex- 
cellency and success; had greater teaching ability and were an- 
imated by a more healthful esprit de corps — all of which 
resulted in the accomplishment of much better work. 

This improvement in the teaching body was due principally 
to the increased provision for the preparation of those intending 
to teach. At the close of the last period there was but little 
provision for the preparation of teachers.^^ It consisted, for 
the most part, in a small number of teacher-training courses 
offered by a few secondary and some of the best elementary 

3'^ See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 102. 

38 The figures given here have been taken from the reports of State 
Superintendent Russell. 

39 Vide ante, pp. 72-75- 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 97 

schools of the State, in ten two-year scholarships provided for 
by the Peabody Educational Fund for white teachers in the 
normal department of Nashville University, Nashville, Tennes- 
see,*" in the courses for prospective teachers given by both the 
East and West Florida Seminaries, and in one normal of a 
month's duration for colored teachers at Tallahassee. However, 
during this period great advance was made in the matter of 
providing for the preparation of teachers. Better and an in- 
creasing number of teacher-training courses were given by the 
elementary and secondary schools; a larger faculty, more ad- 
equate equipment, and better courses of study were provided in 
both of the seminaries ; and, in addition, other means were pro- 
vided for supplying a better trained corps of teachers. 

In 1884, just a few months after Hon. A. J. Russell assumed 
the duties of state superintendent of public instruction, additional 
provision was made for the training of negro teachers. Two 
colored normals of two months' duration were established by 
him — one at Gainesville, under the principalship of Professor 
W. N. Sheats, and the other at Tallahassee, under Professor 
John A. Graham.*^ The total attendance was ninety-four (94),*^ 
fifty-one (51) of whom received certificates to teach, eleven (11) 
receiving second-grade and forty (40) third-grade certificates. 
These schools were continued during the two years immediately 
following,*^ the one at Gainesville being taught by Professors 
Edwin P. Cater, Goodwin, and Mcllvaine in 1885, and by Pro- 
fessors Sheats, Maddox, Waters, and Mrs. Ingram in 1886, and 
the one at Tallahassee by Professors H. N. Felkel and John A. 
Graham in 1885, and by Professors Felkel, Graham, and Merz 
in 1886.** The total attendance at Gainesville was one hundred 

40 These scholarships were discontinued in 1885, for that year the 
trustees of the Peabody Educational Fund withdrew all aid from the 
State, on account of some trouble concerning certain Florida bonds which 
they held. However, at their annual meeting in October, 1892, the State 
was restored to participation in the fund ; eight scholarships were granted, 
and these were immediately filled by appointment by State Superintendent 
Russell. 

*i See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1882-84, pp. 9-10. 

42 Forty-seven (47) at each school. 

43 This was made possible by a legislative appropriation in 1885 of 
$1,000 to each school for the years 1885 and 1886. 

«See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1884-86, p. 8. 



98 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

nineteen (119), forty-nine (49) for the first of these two years 
and seventy (70) for the second, and at Tallahassee one hundred 
eighteen (118), forty-seven (47) for the first and seventy-one 
(71) for the second, making a total of two hundred thirty-seven 
(237) for the two schools during the years 1885 and 1886. 
There were in attendance at these normals for all three years 
(1884-86) a total of three hundred thirty-one (331) students, 
all of whom were deeply interested and studious.** As a result, 
evidently much good was accomplished ; for Superintendent Rus- 
sell, speaking of the work of these schools for the training of 
negro teachers, said : ** 

" We have labored to make these normal schools absolutely practical 
in every sense, laboring to teach these teachers how to teach the children 
under their care, to inspire them vi^ith a proper ambition, and to im- 
press them with the importance of the work in which they are engaged." 

In 1884 there was an additional provision for the preparation 
of white teachers, also. In the autumn of that year the Florida 
Agricultural College, at Lake City, which had been built, 
equipped, and organized since Mr. Russell's entrance into office, 
v/as opened for the admission of students. Though the design 
of this institution was*^ primarily " to teach such branches of 
learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts," 
other branches also were taught. In the preparatory department, 
there were three groups of studies ofifered**' — a classical group, 
a literary group, and a scientific and philosophical group. In 
the college proper, there were six groups of studies ofifered, 
which lead to three different degrees'*^ — a classical and a literary 
group, leading to the degree of bachelor of arts; a scientific, 
an engineering, and an agricultural group, leading to the degree 
of bachelor of science; and a philosophical group, leading to 
the degree of bachelor of philosophy.*® The school was con- 
tinued throughout the period. During this time it was greatly 
improved in the matter of buildings and equipment; its faculty 
was increased from five to fourteen members ; its courses of 
study Avere considerably enriched ; its enrollment was increased 

45 See the Morrill, or Land-Grant, Act of 1862, Sec. 4. 

46 Each of these groups required two years for its completion. 
^"^ Each of these degrees required four years of work. 

48 See Bien. Rep. of Supt'. of Pub. Ins., 1882-84, p. 14. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 99 

from thirty-eight to nearly one hundred students; and it grad- 
ually grew in public favor. One of the results of its work was 
that it proved to be quite influential in advancing the cause of 
education, not only higher, but secondary and elementary ed- 
ucation also. Speaking of this college and the two seminaries. 
State Superintendent Sheats, in 1894, said:*^ 

" It would be a favor of love to record what a splendid influence 
these institutions, working from the top downward and outward, and co- 
operating with public-school effort working from the bottom upward, 
through their various faculties, graduates and undergraduates, have had in 
helping to bring to pass the magnificent epoch, from about 1880 to 1895, in 
educational interest and growth in all grades of schools in the State." 

Again, he said : ^° " They have been helpful adjuncts in pro- 
ducing the enthusiasm and activity characteristic of the public 
school movement in the State." 

In 1887, still further means were provided for the preparation 
of teachers. The legislature of that year, in accordance with 
the constitutional requirement, made provision for the organiza- 
tion of two normal schools — one for whites and one for 
negroes.^^ The one for whites, officially designated and known 
as the State Normal College for White Students, was located 
at De Funiak Springs; the one for negroes, at first designated 
and known as the State Normal College for Colored Students, 
but after 1890 as the Florida State Normal and Industrial Col- 
lege for Colored Students, was located at Tallahassee. Both 
these schools were opened and put into operation the first week 
in October, 1887, the white normal having an attendance of 
sixteen (16) students the first day, and the colored fifteen (15), 
the former enrolling fifty-seven (57) students during the year, 
and the latter fifty-two (52). Both were tolerably well equipped 
and provided with good instructors. In the one for whites, 
there were two departments — a normal department and a pre- 
paratory department. The work of the normal department was 
arranged so as to require two years for its completion, and in- 
cluded courses in methods of instruction, school organization, 
school management, and such other subjects as were necessary to 

49 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 48. 

50 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 50. 

51 See Laws of Florida, 1887, Chap. 3692, pp. 36-37- 



100 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

prepare the students to do efficient work in the public schools 
of the State. The work of the preparatory department required 
one year of study, and had as its design the review or com- 
pletion of the common-school branches and the preparation of 
those desirous of taking the normal courses. The colored nor- 
mal was organized at first on exactly the same plan as the one 
for whites, but with slightly different courses of instruction. 
Later (1891), however, two other departments were organized — 
an agricultural department and an industrial department. These 
schools were open to persons of both sexes from sixteen years 
old and upwards, and tuition in them was entirely free. Those 
completing the work in either of them were recipients, not only 
of a diploma of graduation, but of a life certificate also, which 
entitled its holder to teach in any of the public schools of 
Florida. The number availing themselves of the privileges of 
these institutions continued to increase. Instead of having be- 
tween fifty (50) and sixty (60) students in attendance, as was 
the case in 1887-88, each of them had nearly twice as many in 
1891-92. The work of instruction was excellent, as is evidenced 
by the ease with which all the students, especially the graduates, 
secured the very best positions in the public schools of the State, 
and by the satisfactory manner in which they performed the 
duties of those positions. There can scarcely be any doubt 
but that the influence of these two normals contributed much 
to the improvement of the teaching force in Florida during the 
last five years of this period.^^ 

In addition to the schools already mentioned, there were quite 
a number of others which were not supported by the State that 
contributed no little in the way of supplying the schools of 
Florida with better trained teachers. I refer to the various 
denominational and private schools of the State,^^ one of the 

52 See An. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1887, pp. 12-13 ; 1888, pp. 4-8 ; 
1889, pp. 14-16; 1889-90, pp. 15-18; 1890-91, pp. 12-16; and 1891-92, 
pp. 15-20. 

53 The most flourishing of these schools were the following : 

(a) The Florida Normal School and Business Institute. 

(b) Jasper Normal Institute, located at Jasper, in Hamilton County. 
This school was estaWished by Prof. J. M. Guilliams in September, 1890, 
and from the very first had a large patronage. 

(<:) DeLand Academy, located at DeLand, in Volusia County. This 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 101 

most important of which was the Florida Normal School and 
Business Institute located at White Springs, in Hamilton County. 
This was a private institution, owned and controlled by Prof. 
J. L. Skipworth. The school was established early in the 
eighties, but was not incorporated until June, 1887.^* It had 
three departments — a literary department, a commercial depart- 
ment, and a musical department. In the literary department, 
there were three groups of studies offered — an English group, 
which required four terms of ten weeks each for its completion, 
and a classical and a scientific group, each of which required 
five terms for its completion. The work of this school was 
highly regarded, as is evidenced by its large patronage, its at- 
tendance being nearly two hundred by the close of the period, 
and by the fact that the legislature of 1889 donated it five 
thousand dollars to help in the construction of buildings and 
in the purchase of apparatus.^^ The school, in return, granted 
free tuition in the literary department perpetually for one pupil 
from each senatorial district, the beneficiaries to be appointed 

school was founded by Hon. H. A. DeLand, of Fairport, New York, in 
1883. It was opened for work on the 8th day of November of that 
year. In 1885 it passed under the control of the Baptist State Associa- 
tion, and the following year became known as DfLand Academy and 
College. On May 4, 1887, it was chartered as DeLand University, its 
name being changed in February, 1889. fo lohn B. Stetson University. 

(d) Orange College, located at Starke, in Bradford County. This 
school was chartered in 1883, and was owned and controlled by the 
Christian Church. 

(e) Rollins College, located at Winter Park, in Orange County. 
This college was incorporated April 28, 1885, and was opened for the 
matriculation of students on the 4th day of November of that year. 
Though advertised as non-sectarian, it was under the control of the Gen- 
eral Congregational Association of the State. 

(/) The Florida Conference College, located at Leesburg, in Lake 
County. This school was owned and controlled by the Methodist Episco- 
pal Church South. It was first established at Orlando as a high school, 
but a year or two later (1886) it was removed to Leesburg, and char- 
tered as a college. 

(g) The St. John's Conference College, located at Orange City, in 
Volusia County. This institution was owned and controlled by the 
Methodist Episcopal Church North. It was incorporated in 1887. 

54 See Laws of Florida, 1887, Chap. 3809, pp. 256-57. 

55 See Laws of Florida, 1889, Chap. 3869, p. 70. 



102 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

by the senators of their respective districts. It is because of 
this gift on the part of the State, together with these perpetual 
scholarships, covering tuition, that I mention this school in con- 
nection with those supported by state appropriations. Speaking 
of it, State superintendent Sheats, in 1894, said:^*^ 

" It is due this institution to say that in its palmiest days, before the 
health of its business manager (Professor Skipwort'h) began to fail, it 
had twice as many students from its halls teaching public schools as any 
two institutions in the State; and for a time it exerted a wonderfully 
beneficial influence on the teaching force of the State." 

Tlie System of Public Instruction. — Finally, evidence of growth 
and advancement in the public-school system of Florida during 
Superintendent Russell's administration is seen in the extension 
of the system. Heretofore, there were but very few schools 
offering instruction beyond that of the elementary school. During 
the administration of Mr. Russell, however, better opportunities 
were provided, not only for elementary, but also for secondary, 
higher, and professional instruction. The public-school system 
of the State had, as never before, come to be regarded as one 
continuous school-system, extending from the elementary school 
to and through the state college. 

Mention has already been made of the institutions in which 
higher and professional instruction were offered. These were 
the East Florida Seminary, the West Florida Seminary, the 
Florida Agricultural College, the State Normal College for 
White Students, and the State Normal College for Colored 
Students, all of which, except the first two, were built, equipped, 
and organized after Mr. Russell went into office. We shall speak 
of these again in another chapter. Now, we wish to speak of 
the schools in which secondary instruction was offered. 

The plan of Superintendent Russell was to establish one or 
more county high schools in each county of the State, these to 
be located at the county seats, or at other places more accessible, 
and to be open without any charge whatever to all youth capable 
of taking the courses of study in their ov^n local school. In the 
school law of 1889, which, as already stated, was framed by 
him, the county boards of education were empowered to do 
whatever was necessary in regard to establishing, when required 

56 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 51. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 103 

by the patrons, schools of higher grades of instruction where 
the advancement and number of pupils demanded them.^'^ Had 
this been made mandatory, rather than conditional, upon the 
county boards, every parent, whether rich or poor, would have 
had an opportunity to have given their children an education 
up to and through some, if not all, of the high-school courses 
of study. As it was, several were afiforded this opportunity, 
for such schools were instituted in a number of the counties. 
The main ones, together with their location and the date of 
their organization, were as follows : ^^ Summerlin Institute, 
Bartow, 1889; Hernando High School, Brooksville, 1890; Su- 
wannee High School, Live Oak, 1890; Clay County High School, 
Green Cove Springs, 1890; Ocala High School, Ocala, 1890; 
Orlando High School, Orlando, 1890; Westville High School, 
Westville, 1891 ; Springlake High School, Springlake, 1892 ; and 
Putnam County High School, Palatka, 1892. The principal 
public high schools already established were : ^^ Jefferson Col- 
legiate Institute, Monticello, 1850; St. Johns High School, St. 
Augustine, 1856; Union Academy (colored), Gainesville, 1869; 
Columbia High School, Lake City, 1874; Duval High School, 
Jacksonville, 1876; Nassau High School, Fernandina, 1883; 
Hillsborough High School, Tampa, 1884; Osceola High School, 
Kissimmee, 1884; Eustis High School, Eustis, 1885; Escambia 
High School, Pensacola, 1886; and the high schools at Madison 
and Waukeenah. However, very few of these schools, if any, 
excepting the Duval High School, had regular high-school 
courses of study, each extending through three or four years, 
and limited themselves to this type of work.^" Most of them 
were nothing more than graded schools with from one to three 
years of instruction beyond the elementary courses, in such sub- 
jects as Latin, mathematics, the elements of science, general 
history, civil government, rhetoric, English composition, letter 
writing, bookkeeping, business forms, commercial law, methods 

57 See Laws of Florida, 1889, Chap. 3872, Sec. 20, Para. 5 ; also Re- 
vised Statutes of the State of Florida, 1892, Sec. 242, Para. 5. 

5s See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1890-91, II, 1208; 1891-92, II, 1007; 
1902, II, 1708-09; 1903, II, 1882-83; 1904, II, 1795-96. 

59 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, p. 21; Rep. of Supt. 
of Pub. Ins., 1887, p. 9; Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1904, II, 1795-96. 

60 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 53-54. 



104 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

of teaching, school organization, and school management, the 
design of such instruction being to prepare the youth for higher 
and professional courses of study, for an ordinary business life, 
or for the teaching profession. But that they rendered a val- 
uable service no fair-minded person would deny. They gave 
a new impetus to school work and school interest, furnished 
an opportunity for instruction beyond the elementary branches, 
which many of the youth would never have had without them, 
and supplied the common schools of the State with some of 
their very best teachers. 

The system of public instruction was extended also in another 
direction. In 1883 the legislature, upon the recommendation of 
State Superintendent Foster and the endorsement of Governor 
Bloxham in his message, made provision for the establishment 
and maintenance of an institution to be known as the Florida 
Institute for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb, in which tuition was 
to be absolutely free to all the blind and deaf-mutes of the 
State between the ages of six and twenty-one years, the indigent 
to receive also their board and clothes. The chief state officers 
were made trustees of the school, and an appropriation of ten 
thousand dollars ($10,000) for each of the years 1883 and 1884 
was set apart for the beginning of this noble work.^^ St. 
Augustine, in St. Johns County, secured the location of the 
institution by a gift of five acres of land and one thousand 
dollars ($1,000) in cash. Plans were immediately made for a 
group of buildings, costing twelve thousand seven hundred 
forty-nine dollars ($12,749), to accommodate both races sep- 
arately, and during the following year (1884) they were com- 
pleted in a satisfactory manner. In December the institution 
was opened for the reception of students. Professor C. H. Hill, 
of the Maryland Deaf-Mute Institute, was elected principal by 
the board of managers, but, he f aiHng to accept, the board elected 
Professor Park Terrell, of Columbus, Ohio, who held the prin- 
cipalship from the early part of 1885 until his resignation at 
the end of the school year 1889-90. He was succeeded by Pro- 
fessor William A. Caldwell, who held the principalship until 

61 See Laws of Florida, 1883, Chap. 3450. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 105 

the end of 1892-93, when he was succeeded by Professor H. N. 
Felkel, of the State Normal College for White Students.®- 

At first the corps of officers and teachers in this institution 
consisted of only three persons — Professor Terrell, principal 
and teacher, Mrs. M. D. Taylor, matron, and Mr. T. H. Cole- 
man, teacher. Also the educational facilities were limited. 
Hence, the types of instruction were necessarily limited, including 
simply articulation, facial expression, lip gesture, use of manual 
alphabet, lip reading, and writing. However, as additional 
teachers were employed and better equipment provided, other 
courses were offered. By the close of the period the school had 
become fairly well equipped, and the number of officers and 
teachers had increased to nine, these being Professor Caldwell, 
principal, Mrs. Caldwell, matron, Miss Jennie Stewart, assistant 
matron. Miss Katharine D. Partridge, manual teacher of small 
white children. Miss Grace Gould, teacher of articulation. Miss 
Oakley Bockee, teacher of the manilal system, Miss Luna Sims, 
teacher of the blind, Mr. O. J. Whilden, teacher of type-setting 
and printing, and Mr. Andrew Thompson, supervisor of the boys 
and teacher of carpentry and gardening. Courses of instruc- 
tion very much like those of the common schools were offered. 
But, in addition to these, carpentry and cabinet work, type- 
setting and printing, blacksmithing, and gardening were taught 
the seeing boys, while cooking, plain sewing, and other household 
work were taught the seeing girls ; and music, bead work, basket 
and broom making were taught the blind. Excellent work was 
done in all the departments, and, as Superintendent Russell 
said in his annual report for 1890-91,®^ its influence with these 
afflicted children of the State can be measured only by Him who 
knoweth all things well. 

Besides the educational advantages which this institution of- 
fered the blind and deaf-mutes of the State, it also provided 
them with good home influences. But notwithstanding the in- 
estimable privileges and opportunities afforded, it was three or 

62 For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report 
for 1882-84, pp. 18-19; 1884-86, pp. 9-12; 1887, pp. 13-16; 1888, pp. 8-12; 
1889, pp. 16-18; 1889-90, pp. 20-24; 1890-91, pp. 17-19; and 1891-92, 
pp. 20-23. 

63 See page 17. 



106 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

four years after this institution was opened before the parents 
of these unfortunates could be induced to place their children 
therein. It is said that during the first year there were only 
eleven (ii) pupils in attendance, the total number of these un- 
fortunates in the State being about one hundred nineteen 
(119), seventy-eight of whom were within the school age. 
Gradually, however, the fears of the parents were removed, their 
prejudices were allayed, and they were brought to an appreciation 
of the institution's work. An agency that did much along this 
line was the Florida Association for the Promotion of the Ed- 
cation of the Deaf and Blind, which was organized in March, 
1889. As a result, the attendance was greatly increased. During 
the last year of the period there were six-two (62) pupils in 
the institute, and the parents of these pupils were profuse in 
their praise of the institute's work and profound in their thanks- 
giving. In this institution, as in all the educational institutions 
of the State, Superintendent Russell took great interest. As 
Superintendent Sheats says in his biennial report for the two 
years ending June, 1894,*'* he " deserves credit for the benev- 
olent manner and fatherly interest he took in looking after 
the welfare of these poor unfortunates." 

Still another phase of educational work to which Mr. Russell 
gave considerable attention was the matter of vocational educa- 
tion, especially with reference to industrial work, agricultural 
pursuits, and household-economics. He took no little interest 
in the industrial and agricultural courses which were given at 
the state college; and from the very first he urged that both 
instruction and training along these two lines, and also in house- 
hold-economics, be made a part of the regular courses of study 
in all the public schools of the State. As a result of his in- 
fluence, other members of the state board of education became 
convinced of the importance of this subject, and in 1886 the 
board issued the following regulation : ^^ 

" The state board of education are deeply impressed with the fact that 
the large majority of the children in attendance upon the public schools 
are children of the poorer people, and will fill the large and important 
classes of farmers, workmen, mechanics, and artisans of the State, and 

64 See page 55. 

65 Regulation number 7. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 107 

that to impart to them only the knowledge to be derived from the school 
books, excellent and necessary as it is, will but illy equip them for the 
sphere of life to which in Providence and circumstances they are very 
sure to be called, and are still more impressed with the necessity of im- 
parting to them some knowledge (to boys especially) of the useful and 
necessary tools and implement's used in the arts and trades, and to the 
girls some training in sewing, cookery and housewifery in general, by 
simple illustrative lectures or talks upon their use and the general prin- 
ciples involved, so that a taste may be cultivated for these very useful 
and important vocations in life and some knowledge imparted of them, 
but mainly to impress them with a true and proper conception of the 
honor and dignity of honest labor. County superintendents and boards of 
public instruction are urgently and especially called upon to give their 
earnest attention to this very important feature of school work and 
instruction." 

In 1887, through the earnest efforts of Superintendent Rus- 
sell, seconded by the prompt and generous action of the board 
of education in Duval County and by the colored people of 
Jacksonville, steps were taken to inaugurate this much needed 
phase of instruction and training in the Jacksonville Colored 
Graded School. An annual appropriation of one thousand dol- 
lars ($1,000) to be used for the teaching of industrial courses 
was secured from Dr. A. G. Haygood, general agent of the 
Slater Fund; a suitable building was erected; the necessary 
equipment provided ; a splendid teacher employed ; and some 
excellent courses in the industrial arts and household-economics 
arranged. That year, beginning with the opening of the school 
in October, instruction in the nature and use of the necessary tools 
used in various arts and trades was given the boys, while plain 
sewing, cutting, darning, cooking, laundrying, and other house- 
hold work were taught the girls. Two hours a day were 
devoted to this type of work, and we are told*'® that the results 
were very satisfactory. 

Earnest and continuous efforts were made by the state board 
of education, and especially by Superintendent Russell, to in- 
troduce this important feature of educational work in the entire 
public-school system. These efforts met with considerable suc- 
cess, as instruction and training in the industrial arts, ag- 
ricultural pursuits, and household-economics were introduced 
in all the state educational institutions, except the two seminaries, 
66 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1887, pp. 15 f. 



108 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



in most of the secondary schools, and in some of the best el- 
ementary schools. In this connection Mr, Russell said in his 
annual report for 1888:^^ 

" It has been a special efifort on the part of the state board of 
education to introduce this feature of practical education into the whole 
system, and I am glad to report very considerable success, as already 
referred to at the state college. The normal colleges, and many of the 
larger of the city and village schools, are giving earnest attention to this 
useful branch of a practical education, giving to the children of the poor 
and those of moderate circumstances, the advantages of the books, and 
also an insight into the useful and honorable trades and mechanic pur- 
suits." 

Furthermore, the system of public instruction was extended 
so as not only to include other types of work, but also to reach 

TABLE XII 
Total Population, School Population, Number Enrolled, School At- 
tendance AND Length of School Term (1884-1892)68 





Total 


School 


School 


Ave. daily 


Ave. length 


Years 


population 


population 


enrollment 


attendance 


of term 
in days 


1884-85 


338,406" 


82,863" 


62,327 


41.970* 


92 


1885-86 






70,997 


44,813 




1886-87 






82,453 


51.270 




1887-88 


360,000" 




82,323 


53.130 




1888-89 


370,000"^ 


113.647'' 


86,390 


56,500" 




1889-90 






92,472 


60,819 


100 


1890-91 


391,422^ 


126,500^ 


94-019 


61,000* 


100 


1891-92 


402,000" 


134,000" 


93,780 


62,226 


100 



" State census of 1884. 

' No report from one county. 

" Approximate number. 

''State census of 1888. 

* Approximate number. The number given in Superintendent Russell's re- 
port is 63,652. However, this is evidently too large; for one county, accredited 
with an enrollment of 741, reports an attendance of 5,206. 

•'" United States census of 1890. 

" Approximate number, the school population for 1892, according to the state 
census of that year, being 144,106. 

*• Approximate number. Russell gives 62,004; but this is evidently too large, 
because four counties are accredited with a larger average daily attendance than 
their enrollment, the difference in one county being 3,395. 
^'^ See page 18. 

68 The figures of this table have been taken from the reports of State 
Superintendent Russell. 



PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM 109 

a larger per cent of the school population of the State, and to 
give the pupils a longer term of instruction. This evidence 
of educational progress is seen in the table on the foregoing page. 
Such were the evidences of educational growth and advance- 
ment during the period from 1884 to 1892, inclusive. Though 
all of them were quite marked, they are still more marked in 
the next — that is, the present — period (1892-1921). These 
we shall notice in the subsequent three chapters. 

Summary 

During the administration of State Superintendent Russell 
several important changes were brought about in the public- 
school system of Florida, the principal ones being those effected 
by the constitution of 1885 and the school law of 1889. 

This constitution stated definitely what moneys should be set 
aside for the state school-fund ; ordered a county school-tax of 
from three to five mills ; established a county school-fund ; pro- 
vided for a district school-tax of not more than three mills ; di- 
rected that the state board of education should consist of the 
governor, secretary of state, attorney general, state treasurer, 
and state superintendent of public instruction ; directed that the 
state and county superintendents should be elected by the qual- 
ified voters ; authorized the legislature to provide for the division 
of any county into convenient school-districts, and for the election 
biennially of a district school-board of three members ; required 
that the children of the white race and the children of the 
colored race should be taught in separate schools, but ordered 
that equal school privileges should be accorded to both races ; 
demanded that all county and district school-funds should be 
expended for nothing but school purposes, and that no public- 
school funds should be used for the support of sectarian schools ; 
and ordered the following legislature to provide for not more 
than two normals. 

The school law of 1889, Hke the constitution, directed that 
the state board of education should be composed of the governor, 
secretary of state, attorney general, state treasurer, and state 
superintendent of public instruction. It directed that the county 
boards of education should consist of not more than three mem- 



110 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

bers, no two of whom could live in the same commissioner's 
district, and all of whom were to be nominated by the state 
superintendent and appointed by the state board. It gave the 
county boards sole authority to employ and assign teachers; 
directed them to prescribe the elementary courses of study for 
their respective counties ; and authorized them to establish and 
maintain county high schools. It provided for local school 
supervisors to take the place of the old local school-boards ; 
made provision for special school-districts ; and provided for 
county and district school-taxes. 

During this period considerable educational progress was made. 
There was a persistent and unabated growth of public interest 
in the work of the common schools, as is evidenced by the 
willingness of the people to support the schools. School organ- 
ization and administration became more efficient. More adequate 
and more suitable school plants were provided. Better courses 
of study were offered. A larger and more competent teaching 
corps was secured. And finally, the system of public instruction 
was srreatlv extended. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING (1892-1921) 

We come now to the modern era of public education in Florida, 
which began in 1892. During this period of twenty-nine years 
there has taken place a remarkably rapid advance. The ed- 
ucational ideal has been very much expanded, the administrative 
organization has become much more efficient, the system of pub- 
lic instruction has been greatly extended, and the courses of 
study, textbooks, and methods of teaching have been consider- 
ably improved. More than ever before, the people of the State 
have come to believe in education for the masses. The elemen- 
tary schools have multiplied, and one or more good high schools 
have been established in every county. The school receipts have 
become much larger, the school term has been considerably 
lengthened, and salaries have sufficiently increased to attract better 
officers and teachers. More adequate provision for the prep- 
aration of teachers has been made, better supervision of instruc- 
tion has been provided, and the inspection of schools has been 
made a part of the system. In this and the following four 
chapters we shall point out the progress that has been made 
in the public-school system of the State, mention some of the 
conditions that have been favorable to this progress, and finally, 
give a brief outline of the system as it is at present. First, 
let us notice the evidences of educational growth and advance- 
ment. 

I. The System of Public Instruction 

One of the principal signs of the development of public ed- 
ucation in the State, it seems to me, is the advance that has 
been made with regard to the system of instruction. While 
there had been much improvement along this line, as we have 
found, by the close of the last period, there was still much need 
of greater extension and further humanization. During the 
present era, as will be shown, marked progress has been made 
in extending and humanizing the system of instruction, and in 

111 



112 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

bringing about a better adjustment between the various grades 
and divisions of the pubHc-school system. We shall consider, 
and in the order here mentioned, the various parts of this 
system: (A) elementary-school instruction, (B) secondary- 
school instruction, (C) vocational education, (D) special 
types of school, and (E) higher and professional education. 

A. Elementary-School Instruction 

The Extension of Elementary Instruction. — During the last 
twenty-four years elementary instruction has been greatly ex- 
tended, the number receiving such instruction having considerably 
increased, and these for a much longer period. In 1897-98 there 
were but 108,455 children enrolled in the public elementary 
and secondary schools, of whom only 6,228 were in grades 
higher than the fifth; the average daily attendance was 74,004, 
or 48 per cent of the school population and 68 per cent of the 
enrollment; and the average length of the school term was 
104 days. In 1919-20 there were 225,160 children enrolled, of 
whom 50,986 were in grades higher than the fifth ; the average 
daily attendance was 165,720, or 54 per cent of the school 
population and 74 per cent of the enrollment ; and the average 
length of the school term was 133 days. In other words, during 
this interval the average daily attendance increased 124 per cent, 
while the school population increased 103 per cent; the number 
receiving instruction beyond the fifth grade increased over 700 
per cent; and the average length of the school term increased 
from 104 to 133 days. Table XIII, on the following page, shows 
the progress that has been made along these lines since 1892. 

Means Used in the Extension of Elementary Instruction. — 
Various means have been used for the purpose of extending 
common-school instruction, some of the chief ones being com- 
pulsory school-attendance, educational campaigns, the formation 
of school-improvement associations, the provision of better and 
more adequate school plants, the employment of a more efficient 
and adequate body of teachers, and the transportation of pupils 
at public expense. The first of these, though discussed and 
urged by every state superintendent of public instruction, by 
nearly every convention of county superintendents, by numerous 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



113 



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114 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

state and county teachers' associations, and by many other pub- 
lic gatherings, has been used only recently. Not until 191 5 was 
it possible to get the legislature to enact a compulsory school- 
attendance law;- and then the best that could be secured was 
a local option law, which required a three-fifths vote of the 
qualified electors of a county or school district to put it into 
operation and, when put into operation, required only eighty 
days' attendance each year on the part of the children between 
the ages of eight and fourteen. However, quite a number of 
districts, and also a few counties, availed themselves of its pro- 
visions; though just what eflfect the law had, it is not possible 
to say. But in 1919 a state-wide compulsory-attendance law 
was enacted,^ which, as Superintendent Sheats points out,* has 
undoubtedly been a very efifective means for increasing the 
attendance. 

School-improvement associations have been organized and cam- 
paigns in behalf of elementary education conducted in many 
localities of the State.^ As a result, much has been done in 
the way of overcoming indifference on the part of parents, 
which has always been one of the principal hindrances to reg- 
ularity of school attendance; of arousing indifferent patrons to 
a clearer conception of duty with reference to the education 
of their children ; and of causing both parents and children to 
see more fully the importance of an elementary education. Both 
methods have indeed been quite effective in bringing about a 
better attendance. 

Another method used in making common-school instruction 
more universal has been the transportation of pupils to and from 
school at the expense of the public. The first county to use 
this system to any considerable extent was Duval, in 1898.° 
That same year, however, there were four other counties which 
made slight use of it — Citrus, Jackson, Polk, and Volusia.'' 
But since then nearly every county of the State has resorted 

2 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6831. 

3 This will be discussed in Chapter X. 

* See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 32. 
s See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1908-10, pp. 7-13. 

6 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1898-1900, pp. 341-42. 

7 Ibid., pp. 334, 352, 277, and 39i- 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 115 

to free transportation for children living too far from school 
to walk. Hence, quite a number of children have been enabled 
to attend school, who otherwise would have been deprived of 
this privilege. The progress made along this line may be seen 
in Table XIV, on the next page. 

But the most widely used means for improving school attend- 
ance have been the providing of more adequate and more 
suitable school plants and the employment of a larger and better 
teaching force. School officers throughout the State, realizing 
that inadequate, uncomfortable, and unattractive schools, taught 
by inefficient teachers, constitute serious obstacles to school at- 
tendance, have always been trying to bring about an increase 
and an improvement in the school plants and the teaching staflf. 
Consequently, much has been accomplished along both these lines. 
This is partly shown in Table XIV, and partly in the tables on 
pages 124, 173, and 180, 

The Curricula of the Elementary Schools. — The curricula, too, 
have been considerably improved, the courses of study offered 
having been both increased and enriched. At first the courses 
of instruction were few and very simple, being concerned pri- 
marily with spelling and the three R's.® To be sure, a number 
of other subjects were taught, for example, geography, English 
grammar and composition, United States and Florida history, 
physiology and hygiene, and sometimes the elements of book- 
keeping; but, as a rule, these were given only scant attention. 
As to content, the courses of study in the various subjects were 
usually quite defective, both quantitatively and qualitatively. 
They were almost entirely expressed in terms of pages of the text- 
books used, having but little, if any, supplementary material 
provided ; and were, in most cases, also poorly adapted to meet 
the actual needs of the pupils. Furthermore, there was con- 
siderable inequality among the various counties of the State, and 
even among the schools of the same county, in regard to the liber- 
ality and the enrichment of the courses of instruction. In short, 
the curricula lacked many of the common elements which make 
for the welfare of a state. 

s This is evident from the outlined courses of study issued by the 
county boards of public instruction, a number of which I have had the 
opportunity to examine. 



116 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



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THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 117 

There were at least two causes for the foregoing weaknesses. 
In the first place, the framing of the courses of study was left 
entirely to the different county school boards/" with no super- 
vision save that of a few of the most prominent teachers whom 
they chose to consult. On account of indifference or neglect 
many of them failed to prepare a curriculum for the schools 
of their respective counties/^ leaving it to the teachers of the 
various schools as to what they should teach; and, judging from 
the curricula that were prepared, it is quite evident that a 
number of the other school boards were not competent to pre- 
scribe a course of study. In the second place, there was, in 
many instances, a lack of co-operation between the teachers 
and their school boards in enforcing the courses of instruction 
that had been prepared. ^^ In some cases the boards found it 
difficult, because of the objections from patrons, to get the 
teachers to enforce the courses of study; and in other cases 
the boards failed to sustain those teachers who were inclined 
to insist on a regular curriculum. It is quite natural, therefore, 
that the older elementary-school curricula were deficient in both 
quantity and quality. 

In order to remedy the meagerness of the earlier curricula 
State Superintendent W. N. Sheats, in 1894, recommended the 
passage of a law authorizing the state board of education to 
formulate prescribed courses of study.^^ Since then school 
officers, principals, teachers, and others interested in the educa- 
tional welfare of the State have, from time to time, urged the 
passage of such a law ; and within the last few years nearly all 
the conventions of county superintendents and other school 
officers and county and state teachers' associations have adopted 
resolutions to this effect.^* As a result, there has been developing 
a public sentiment in favor of prescribed courses of study for 
all the schools of the State. A bill making such provision met 
with no opposition in the legislature of 191 5, it having died 

10 See Laws of Florida, 1889, Sec. 20, Para. 10; also Revised Statutes 
of the State of Florida, 1892, Sec. 242, Para. 10; and Compilation of the 
School Laws, 1893, Sec. 28. 

" See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, p. 380. 

12 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 125. 

^^ Ibid., p. 126. 

14 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 54. 



118 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

on the second reading in the senate simply through oversight. 
It then seemed evident, in view of the almost universal demand 
for a state school curriculum, that the legislature of 1917 would 
certainly enact a law to this effect. However, it failed to do 
so. Therefore, the conference of county superintendents, high- 
school principals, and other school officers, which met at Gaines- 
ville on the tenth of May of the following year (1918), adopted 
resolutions requesting State Superintendent Sheats to have pre- 
pared a uniform curriculum of the public elementary and second- 
ary schools of Florida.^^ The resolutions provided (i) that 
he should send a circular letter to the several county school 
boards asking for a voluntary contribution to meet the expenses 
of preparing and printing a state school curriculum, (2) that 
he should endeavor to raise for this purpose a sum of $1,000 
by prorating the amount among the various school boards on 
the basis of the wealth of the counties, and (3) that if the money 
were assured he should appoint a commission of the leading 
educators of the State to prepare the courses of study. In 
accordance with these resolutions, a letter was sent to all the 
school boards on June ist, in response to which every board but 
one cheerfully and promptly forwarded the amount apportioned 
thereto, the total being v$990.i*^ This sum of money having 
been received, a commission consisting of three county super- 
intendents of public instruction,^^ four high-school principals,^® 
four representatives of the grammar grades,^^ three represen- 
tatives of the primary grades,"" and four representatives of vo- 
cational education,^^ was at once appointed.^^ This commission 
met at Tallahassee the latter part of June, and formulated 
a uniform public-school curriculum, which met with almost uni- 
versal approval among the school men of the State. By act ap- 
is See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 45-46. 
16 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 47. 
" J. E. Knight, P. G. Shaver, and C. R. M. Sheppard. 

18 W. S. Cawthon, R. M. Evans, J. M. Guilliams, and J. H. Workman. 

19 W. T. Cash, Mrs. Emma A. Mays, S. Philips, and R. L. Turner. 

20 Mrs. Stella P. Arrington, Miss Nellie C. Stevens, and Miss Maude 
Schwalmeyer. 

21 W. L. Floyd, Miss Agnes Ellen Harris, Miss Marjorie Leach, and 
Miss Gertrude York. 

22 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 45-46. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 119 

proved June 9, 1919,-^ it was " adopted and validated and pre- 
scribed " for the public elementary and high schools of Florida ; 
provided, however, that said curriculum " shall be considered as 
containing and prescribing the minimum requirements only, and 
that nothing herein contained shall be so construed as to prevent 
or prohibit any school or schools from pursuing or completing 
other and additional or advanced' work." Thus, after ia quarter of 
a century's effort the State has a prescribed curriculum for all its 
elementary and high schools, which is certainly a step in the 
right direction. An analysis of this will be given in Chapter X. 
Other laws having as their aim the improvement of the com- 
mon-school curricula have been passed. A law having this as 
one of its aims was enacted in 1903.^* This act set forth the 
subjects in which courses of instruction should be offered.^^ It 
required that instruction should be given in the primary grades^^ 
in reading, spelling, language, physiology and hygiene, number 
and writing, and that such lessons should be given in music, 
drawing, geography, nature study, morals and manners, as pro- 
vided for in the county courses of study ; that instruction should 
be given in the intermediate grades in the three R's, spelling, 
language, geography, physiology and hygiene, and elementary 
science, and that such lessons should be given in music, drawing, 
history, nature study, morals and manners, as provided for in 
the county courses; and, finally, that instruction should be given 
in the grammar grades in reading, orthography, grammar, arith- 
metic (oral and written), science, physiology, geography, and 
history and civil government of Florida and of the United 
States, and that such lessons should be given in music, drawing, 
morals and manners, manual training, domestic arts and sciences, 
and agriculture, as provided for in the county courses. These 
requirements were re-enacted in 1905,^^ and remained in force 

23 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7910. 
-* See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5206. 

25 Sections 4-6. 

26 Each school year of instruction was to be regarded as a grade 
(Sec. 2). The first two were to be known as primary; the third, fourth, 
fifth, and sixth as intermediate; and the seventh and eighth as grammar 
grades (Sec. 3). 

27 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5382. 



120 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

until June 9, 1919, when the present law regarding the elemen- 
tary-school curriculum was approved. 

This law further provided, or at least it was clearly implied in 
section eleven, for the issuance of suggestive elementary courses 
and plans. So the committee which had been appointed and 
empowered in accordance with section eight to prepare an official 
standard curriculum for the high-school grades, recognizing the 
need of better elementary courses of instruction, prepared also 
an advisory curriculum for the elementary grades. This was 
printed in pamphlet form with the standard high-school cur- 
riculum and distributed among the school officers and teachers 
of the State. Though only advisory, it was generally adopted 
by the county school boards,^^ and did much in the way of 
improving elementary instruction.^^ 

The common-school curricula were again enlarged in 1909, 
when a law was passed making the elementary principles of ag- 
riculture and the elementary principles of civil government pre- 
scribed subjects of study for all the common schools of the State, 
and requiring the various county school boards to prepare 
courses of instruction in these subjects and to see that the 
teachers of their respective counties taught them, any county 
school board failing to comply with this act being subject to 
removal from office.^" As a rule, the law has been, and still is, 
faithfully observed. In practically all the schools of the State 
instruction in these subjects is being offered. 

Still another law increasing the number of subjects to be 
taught in the common schools was passed in 1915.^^ This act 
requires the teaching of the evils of alcoholic beverages and nar- 
cotics in the public schools of the State to all children between 
the ages of six and twelve years, and it provides that the state 
superintendent of public instruction shall encourage and put into 
execution an effective system for the teaching of these evils. 

28 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 229. 

29 For this curriculum see Standard Course of Study for the Public 
High Schools of Florida, with an Advisory Course of Study for Rural 
Schools (a pamphlet prepared by the high-school commission provided for 
in Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5206, Sec. 8), pp. 15-22. 

30 See Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5938- 

31 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6832. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 121 

Complying with this law, State Superintendent Sheats has given 
every possible aid and encouragement, and nearly all the county 
superintendents and school boards have been requiring the vari- 
ous teachers to offer such instruction. Speaking of the observ- 
ance of this excellent act, Mr. Sheats says:^^ 

"... On the whole, the law has been faithfully observed, but will 
receive the further careful attention of the state superintendent to the 
end that the lesson of the evils of alcohol and narcotics shall be taught 
every child attending school in Florida." 

Thus we see that the curricula of the elementary schools have 
become very much enlarged ; but the instruction offered in the 
different subjects has become considerably enriched too, as is 
quite evident from a comparison of the older courses of study 
with the more recent ones. Nearly all the recent courses are 
much more elaborate, containing a plan of work for each of 
the eight grades, and also a rather full statement of the work 
to be expected in each of the subjects. In most of them the 
amount of work to be done in each branch is stated largely 
in terms of topics rather than in terms of pages of textbooks, 
as in the earlier courses ; and in a number of them some help- 
ful suggestions as to methods of teaching the various branches 
are given, and also considerable supplementary work for the 
pupils is indicated. Furthermore, we find that the present ele- 
mentary courses of instruction are more related to life. Less 
stress in being placed upon imparting of certain inherited 
knowledge of the past, and more upon fitting the pupils to think ; 
less upon the memorizing of facts, and more upon the training 
of the pupils in the power of self-expression; less upon the 
gathering of information, and more upon preparing the pupils 
for the different forms of human activity. These and other 
facts that we could give, if space permitted, go to show that 
considerable improvement has been made in the public elementary- 
school curricula. 

B. Secondary-School Instruction 

The Extension of Secondary Education. — The past twenty-nine 
years have witnessed almost unparalleled growth in the extension 
of public secondary education in Florida. By 1918 the number 

32 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 78. 



122 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

attending the public high schools had grown from less than 
700^^ to more than 7,000,^* an increase of over 900 per cent, 
while during the same period the school population had increased 
only about 90 per cent. In other words, attendance in the 
public high schools has been growing more than ten times as 
fast as the school population. Table XV shows the progress 
that has been made along this line. 

Means Used in the Extension of Secondary Education. — The 
means that have been used for extending elementary instruc- 
tion — compulsory school-attendance legislation, educational cam- 
paigns and school-improvement associations, the consolidation of 
rural schools and the transportation of pupils, the provision of 
more and better school plants, and the employment of a more 
adequate and efficient body of teachers — have been of use, 
either directly or indirectly, in extending secondary instruction, 
also. But, as in the case of elementary education, the most 
widely used means for extending secondary education have been 
the furnishing of more adequate and suitable school plants and 
the securing of a larger and more competent corps of teachers. 
In this connection great progress has been made. Twenty-nine 
years ago, when Hon. W. N. Sheats was elected state super- 
intendent of public instruction, there were but 10 public high 
schools reported,'^^ and these were worth only about $65,000;^^ 
there were but 2y high-school teachers,^^ and only a few of 
these had adequate professional training.^^ Realizing the need 
of better secondary-school advantages, Mr. Sheats began at once 
to effect an improvement. He recommended to the legislature 
the passage of a bill requiring at least one high school with an 
eight months' term in each county. In his biennial report for 
1892-94, he says: ^^ 

" In my judgment, there is missing the middle link in the educational 
system of the State, and that every county is able and now ready to sup- 
ply that link, if encouraged to do so, and the backbone of the men charged 

33 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1892-93, II, 1820. 

34 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 284-88. 

35 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1892-93, II, 1820. 

36 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1893-94, H, 182^-30; 1894-95, II, 
1897; 1895-96, II, 1612-13; 1896-97, II, 1939-40; 1897-98, II, 2108-09. 

37 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 102-07. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 123 

with the duty can be so strengthened that they will turn a deaf ear to the 
voice of demagogy. One good secondary school for every county for 
whites, and one for blacks in populous negro counties, is now necessary to 
complete the system and strengthen both the common public school and 
the higher institutions. 

" At first each of these schools need not be strictly a high school, but 
a graded and high school, that is, a regular graded school with a high 
school department. 

" I believe it would be a wise step on the part of the legislature to 
amend section 242, paragraph 5, of the Revised Statutes, and make it 
mandatory, instead of conditional, upon each county board of public 
instruction to establish and maintain for eight months in every year either 
a county high school or a graded and high school. 

" This school should be located at the county seat, or at the most im- 
portant center in the county. ..." 

From that time to the present similar recommendations have been 
made in nearly every report of the state department of education, 
and also resolutions to this effect have been adopted by many 
of the conventions of county superintendents and other school 
officers. However, no such law has yet been passed. But even 
without a law requiring each county to establish and maintain 
one or more high schools for a term of eight or nine months 
in every year, such schools have been established in practically 
every county. School officers throughout the State, realizing the 
importance of better secondary-school advantages, began to work 
for an increase and an improvement in the school plants and the 
teaching corps. Such efforts have been continued from that day 
till this. As a result, great progress has been made in both these 
directions. Instead of 10 public high schools with a property 
value of only about $65,000 and 27 high-school teachers, few 
of whom had adequate professional training, as in 1892-93, there 
were in 191 7-1 8 121 such schools valued at approximately 
$3,500,000 and 497 teachers, 308 of whom were college grad- 
uates.^" The progress that has been made along these lines is 
shown in the table on the following page. 

The Curricula of the Secondary Schools. — As we have shown, 
public secondary instruction has been greatly extended in Florida 
within the last twenty-nine years; but it has also been greatly 

28 See pp. 121-22. 

39 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 193-94- 



124 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 




THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 125 

improved. As in the elementary schools, the older courses of 
study were indeed quite meager, being devoid of many of the 
elements usually found in an up-to-date high-school curriculum, 
and possessing many that were more or less unrelated to life. 
For the most part, they were concerned almost exclusively with 
the old or traditional secondary-school subjects, the most com- 
mon ones being higher arithmetic, algebra, geometry, Latin, rhet- 
oric, English composition, outlines of general history, physics, 
chemistry, and physical geography ; trigonometry, elementary 
analytics, English literature, Greek, United States history and 
civil government, astronomy, and psychology were sometimes 
taught; but little or no systematic instruction was given in phys- 
iology and hygiene, the commercial subjects, the manual arts, 
household economics, the agricultural pursuits, music, drawing, 
and public speaking. The two following curricula — the first 
being the curriculum of the high school at Live Oak, and the 
second that of the one at Bradentown — represent in general 
what the early high schools of the State offered in the way of 
educational opportunity to the youth of their respective com- 
munities. 

Typical Two-year High-school Curriculum *i 
first year second year 

First Term Second Term First Term Second Term 

Algebra Algebra Plane Geometry Solid Geometry 

Rhetoric General History Astronomy Trigonometry 

Civil Government Physics Literature Chemistry 

Physical Geog- Word Analysis Botany Geology 

Latin [raphy Latin Latin Latin 

Typical Four-year High-school Curriculum ^2 
first year second yeab 

Higher Arithmetic Algebra 

Algebra Plane Geometry 

Henkles' Speller English Literature 

Lockwood's English Latin (Caesar) 

First Latin Book General History 

General History 

third year fourth year 

Solid Geometry Trigonometry 

Word Analysis Elementary Analytics 

Rhetoric English Criticism 

Latin (Cicero) Latin (Virgil and Horace) 

Chemistry Political Science 

" Vide Bien. Rep. of Supf. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, p. 230. 

•t2 Vide ibid., pp. 223-25. 



126 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

The need of better high-school courses of study was quite 
generally recognized by both the state and county school author- 
ities. At the state convention of county superintendents and 
other school officers which met at Green Cove Springs, Feb- 
ruary 11-13, 1902, the following resolution was almost .unan- 
imously adopted : *^ 

" Resolved 4. That we recognize the need of a standard course of 
study for the county schools and recommend that the State Superin- 
tendent, with a competent committee, appointed by him, prepare and dis- 
tribute among the schools of the State such a course of study with sug- 
gestions as to the best means of adapting the same to individual needs." 

That same year Professor H. E. Bennett, clerk and assistant 
of State Superintendent Sheats, prepared a bill which had as 
one of its provisions a provision for the formulation of a stand- 
ard high-school curriculum.^* This bill was introduced by Sen- 
ator W. A. Blount, of Escambia County, and after being slightly 
amended was passed by both branches of the legislature, be- 
coming a law May 26, 1903.*^ Section eight of this act provided 
for the appointment by the state superintendent of public in- 
struction of a committee of not less than six or more than ten 
of the most capable persons, of whom at least one-third were 
to be presidents or principals of state higher educational in- 
stitutions, and at least one-third were to be principals of high 
or graded schools, and these, together with the state superin- 
tendent, at the earliest practical date were to prepare a standard 
curriculum for the high schools of the State. This curriculum 
was to prescribe the minimum requirements for a standard high 
school and enough of other work to insure suitable preparation 
of the high-school graduates for admission into the freshman 
classes of the state institutions for higher education; but it was 
not to prescribe the details as to order or method of instruction, 
though it could make recommendations along these lines. It 
further provided that the state superintendent should have this 

*3 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., igoo-1902, p. 414. 
** See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, pp. 228-30. 
45 See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5206. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING ^ 127 

curriculum printed and distributed free of charge among the 
teachers and school ofiicers of the State. 

A committee of ten was appointed by State Superintendent 
Sheats in July, 1903.*'' This committee met on the 28th of 
the month, and organized by electing Superintendent Sheats as 
chairman. After a session of four days the work was com- 
pleted.*'' The following is a brief outline of the curriculum that 
was formulated. 

Standard Curriculum for the Public High Schools (1903)^8 

first year 

Names of Courses Periods per Week 

English Grammar Three 

English Classics One 

Prose Composition One 

Algebra Four 

Arithmetic One 

Physical Geography Five 

Civil Government of the United States*^ One 

General History (with special reference to Greece and 

Rome) Four 

Collar and Daniel's First Book in Latin (or its equivalent) . Five 

46 This committee consisted of the following: President T. H. Talia- 
ferro, University of Florida; President A. A. Murphree, Florida State 
College; Professor H. E. Bennett, principal of State Normal School; 
Professor J. E. Guisinger, principal of St. Petersburg Normal and Indus- 
trial School ; Professor T. F. McBeath, principal of Jacksonville Grammar 
School ; Professor A. A. Simpson, principal of Osceola High School ; Miss 
Maude Schwalmeyer, primary teacher in SummerUn Institute; Miss Mary 
S. Johnson, formerly principal of Tampa Graded School; Superintendent 
S. Philips, of Levy County; Superintendent W. M. Holloway, of Alachua 
County. 

47 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, pp. 229-30. 

48 See Standard Course of Study for the Public High Schools of 
Florida, with an Advisory Course of Study for Rural Schools. 

49 In the junior, or two year, high schools the history of the United 
States was to be offered, also. 



128 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

SECOND YEAR 

Names of Courses Periods per Week 

English Grammar Three 

English Classics One 

Prose Composition One 

Algebra Four 

Arithmetic One 

Zoology (first half of the year) Five 

Botany (second half of the year) Five 

General History^'O Five 

Four Books of Caesar (or their equivalent) Five 

THIRD YEAR 

Names of Courses Periods per Week 

Rhetoric Four 

English Classics One 

Plane Geometry Five 

Physics Five 

English History Four 

History and Civil Government of Florida One 

Four Orations against Catiline (first half of the year) Five 

Three Books of the Aeneid (second half of the year) Five 

First-year German (elective) Five 

First-year French (elective) Five 

First-year Spanish (elective) Five 

First-year Greek (elective) Five 

FOURTH YEAR 

Names of Courses Periods per Week 

Rhetoric (first half of the year) Three 

Rhetorical and Grammatical Study of Enghsh Classics 

(first half of the year) Tv^^o 

(second half of the year) Three 

Theme Writing (second half of the year) Tvi^o 

Plane Trigonometry (first half of the year) Five 

Solid Geometry, Spherical Trigonometry, or Bookkeeping 

(second half of the year) Five 

Chemistry Five 

United States History Five 

First Six Books of the Aeneid (completed) and Latin 

Prose Composition from Manual (first half of the year) . Five 
Ovid's Metamorphoses (or its equivalent) and Latin Prose 

Composition from Manual (second half of the year).. Five 

50 In the junior high schools general history, with special attention to 
England, and history and civil government of Florida w^ere to be offered 
the first half of the year; and general history, with special attention to 
England, and a review of United States history, the second half. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 

Second-year German (elective) Five 

Second-year French (elective) Five 

Second-year Spanish (elective) Five 

Second-year Greek (elective) Five 



129 



As the law required, this curriculum was printed and distrib- 
uted among the school officers and teachers throughout the State. 
A part or all of it was at once introduced in practically all the 
public schools offering secondary-school work.^^ The two-year 
high schools adopted the first two grades ; and the four-year 
high schools, all four.^^ This continued to be the work offered 
in the various high schools until 19 lo, when the minimum re- 
quirements with reference to instruction for a standard high 
school were supplemented and amended by the state board of 
education. Two high-school curricula were formulated, which 
were as follows : ^^ 



Latin Curriculum 



First Year 
English Grammar 
English Composition 
English Classics 
First Latin Book 
Algebra (to quadratics) 
English History 

Second Year 
Rhetoric 

English Composition 
English Classics 

Caesar's Gallic War (four books) 
Algebra (completed) 
General History 



Third Year 
Rhetoric 

English Literature 
English Composition 
English Classics 
Six Orations against Catiline 
Plane Geometry 
Physics^* 

Fourth Year 
American Literature 
English Composition 
English Classics 
Virgil's Aeneid (six books) 
Plane Trigonometry 
United States History and Civics 



51 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 233; also Bien. 
Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, p. 13. 

52 This was necessary in order to be classified as standard junior and 
senior high schools, respectively, and also in order to receive aid from the 
State (see Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5206, Sec. 10; and Laws of 
Florida, 1905, Chap. 5382, Sec. 10). 

53 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1908-10, pp. 220-22. 

54 Laboratory three periods per week. 



130 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



English Scientific Curriculum ^^ 



First Year 
English Grammar 
English Composition 
English Classics 
Algebra (to quadratics) 
Either Botany or Zoology (or 

both for a term each) 
English History 

Second Year 
Rhetoric 

EngHsh Composition 
English Classics 
Algebra (completed) 
Physical Geography 
General History 



Third Year 
Rhetoric 

English Literature 
English Composition 
English Classics 
Plane Geometry 
Physics''* 
Ethics 

Fourth Year 
American Literature 
English Composition 
English Classics 
Plane Trigonometry^ 
Commercial Arithmetic and Book- 
keeping, or Physiology 
United States History and Civics 



One or both of these curricula were generally accepted and 
adopted by the various four-year high schools.^'' A large per 
cent of the regular four-year, or senior, high schools ofifered 
both. However, the classical curriculum was the one empha- 
sized. In the other four-year high schools the classical cur- 
riculum was the only one usually offered. Most of the two- and 
three-year high schools adopted, respectively, the first two and 
three grades of one or both of the curricula, but they gave nearly 
all their attention to English, history, mathematics, and Latin. 
Thus we see that at that time very little attention was given 
to science in any of the high schools. Practically none was 
given to the manual arts, agriculture, and household economics." 
But within the last decade the emphasis has been changing from 
the old or traditional subjects to the scientific and vocational 
ones. During this time, while urging the high schools to adopt 

55 The four years of work in mathematics and English are exactly the 
same here as in the Latin curriculum. 

56 See Bien. Rep. of St. High Sc. Inspec, 1910-12, in Bien. Rep. of 
Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1910-12, pp. 229-307. 

57 In 1911-12 there were only five high schools with any form of man- 
ual or home-economics work — Manatee, Pensacola, Jacksonville, St. 
Petersburg, and Tampa. Two of these offered domestic science only; 
one, manual training; and two, manual training and domestic science. 
And there were only nine maintaining courses in agriculture (see Bien. 
Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1910-12, pp. 247-48). 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 131 

the standard curriculum^^ as the minimum work to be offered, 
the leading educators and school officers of the State have also 
constantly urged the introduction of subjects more closely related 
to life. As a result, public high-school instruction has been con- 
siderably broadened and enriched. More will be said in this 
connection in the following division on vocational education in 
Chapter X. 

Present Secondary-School Advantages. — As we have just seen, 
public secondary instruction has been both greatly extended and 
improved. Schools giving such instruction have been established 
in sections of the State not hitherto supplied with any means of 
secondary education; and the advantages offered equal, if not 
surpass, those offered in any of the other states in the South.^^ 
In 1917-18 there were 121 public high schools in operation — 
14 two-year high schools, 3 three-year high schools, 70 four- 
year high schools, and 34 high schools from which no report 
was received as to the length of the curriculum in years, but of 
which 15 were reported the year before as having a two-year 
curriculum, 3 a three-year curriculum, and thirteen a four-year 
curriculum. The following year five other high schools were 
reported,''*' — Chattahoochee, Enterprise, George Washington, 
Umatilla, and Woodrow Wilson, — making a total of 126 in op- 
eration in 1918-19. 

But we shall get a better idea of the secondary-school advan- 
tages that are being offered the youth by noticing the various 
standards that have been obtained by many of the public high 
schools. In this connection we find that there are 15 schools 

28 Until the year 1919 this was the one which was authorized and 
promulgated by provisions in Chapter 5206, Laws of 1905, and supple- 
mented and amended by the state board of education in 1910. But, as 
we have seen (pp. 1 18-19), a new standard high-school curriculum was 
formulated by the state department of education in 1918, and prescribed 
for the public high schools of the State by the legislature of 1919. An 
analysis of this curriculum will be given in Chapter X. 

59 See Bull, of U. S. Bu. of Ed., 1916, No. 20, pp. 91-94; also Report of 
the Commission on Accredited Schools of the Association of Colleges and 
Secondary Schools of the Southern States, 1919. 

6° See Directory of Florida School Officers, High Schools and other 
Educational Institutions, 1919. Tallahassee, Florida: T. J. Appleyard, 
Printer. 



132 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

which have met the requirements of the state board of education 
for a standard junior high school, 9 for a standard intermediate 
high school, and 38 for a standard senior high school. ^^ Now, 
the minimum requirements for a standard junior high school 
are:«2 

1st. The term must not be less than 8 months, or 160 days. 

2d. The average daily attendance must not be less than 50 pupils. 

3d. It must have in regular attendance not less than 10 pupils in the 
ninth and tenth grades. 

4th. It must employ not less than 4 full-time teachers, each legally 
certificated. 

Sth. The principal must hold a valid life-state, state, or first-grade 
certificate supplemented by a special certificate covering all the academic 
subjects prescribed in the standard high-school curriculum for the ninth 
and tenth grades. 

6th. At least one properly certificated teacher must devote all of his 
or her time to teaching the ninth and tenth grades. 

7th. The average length of the recitation periods in the two high- 
school grades must not be less than 40 minutes. 

Sth. All pupils in the high-school grades must carry not less than 4 
academic subjects. 

9th. The building must contain not less than 4 properly equipped 
recitation rooms. 

loth. It must have laboratory equipment and a w^ell-selected library, 
each w^orth not less than $100. 

The minimum requirements for a standard intermediate high 
school are : ^^ 

1st. The term must not be less than 8 months, or 160 days. 

2d. The average daily attendance must not be less than 100 pupils. 

3d. It must have in regular attendance not less than 20 pupils in the 
ninth, tenth, and eleventh grades, 5 of whom must be in the eleventh 
grade. 

4th. It must employ not less than 2 teachers, exclusive of the prin- 
cipal, each legally certificated and devoting all of his or her time to 
teaching high-school classes. 

61 Chapter 5206, Laws of 1903, and Chapter 5382, Laws of 1905, pro- 
vide for only two classes of high schools, — ^junior and senior, — the former 
including those offering the first two grades of the standard high-school 
courses of study, and the latter including those offering all four grades ; 
but in 1914 the state board of education decided to authorize three 
classes, — junior, intermediate, and senior. 

62 See Florida Regulations for Accrediting High Schools, Regulation 
1 : in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 169-70. 

63 See Florida Regulations for Accrediting High Schools, Regulation 
2; in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 170-71. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 133 

Sth. Every teacher must hold a certificate covering the subjects 
taught. 

6th. The principal must hold either a life-state or state certificate, and 
must not hear more than 4 regular recitations a day. 

7th. The average length of the recitation periods in the three high- 
school grades must not be less than 45 minutes. 

Sth. All pupils in the high-school grades must carry not less than 4 
academic subjects. 

9th. The building must contain not less than 7 well-adapted recitation 
rooms, all furnished with necessary teaching appliances. 

loth. It must have laboratory equipment and a well-selected library, 
each worth not less than $150. 

The minimum requirements for a standard senior high school 
are : ** 

1st. The term must not be less than 8 months, or 160 days. 

2d. The average daily attendance must not be less than 150 pupils. 

3d. It must have in regular attendance not less than 30 pupils in the 
four high-school grades, 10 of whom must be in the eleventh and twelfth 
grades. 

4th. It must employ not less than 3 teachers, exclusive of the prin- 
cipal, each legally certificated and devoting all of his or her time to 
teaching high-school classes. 

5th. Every teacher must hold a certificate covering the subjects taught. 

6th. The principal must hold either a life-state or state certificate, 
and must not hear more than 3 regular recitations a day. 

7th. The average length of the recitation periods in all high-school 
grades must not be less than 45 minutes. 

Sth. All pupils in the high-school grades must carry not less than 4 
academic subjects. 

9th. The building must contain not less than 8 well-adapted recitation 
rooms, all furnished with necessary teaching appliances. 

loth. It must have laboratory equipment and a well-selected library, 
each worth not less than $200. 

The schools which have met these various requirements and 
w^ere accredited by the state department of education May i, 1919, 
together with their location and the name of their principal, 
are as follows : ^^ 

64 See Florida Regulations for Accrediting High Schools, Regulation 
3; in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 171. 

65 See Directory of Florida School Officers, High Schools and other 
Educational Institutions, 1919. 



134 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 





Standard Junior 


High Schools 




Name of School 


Town 


County 


Principal 


Sherwin 


Millville 


Bay 


R. L. Hosford 


Cocoanut Grove 


Cocoanut Grove 


Dade 


A. L. Isaac 


Bowling Green 


Bow^ling Green 


DeSoto 


J. N. Overhultz 


Chattahoochee 


Chattahoochee 


Gadsden 


Miss Lucile Weaver 


Havana 


Havana 


Gadsden 


E. L. Shuler 


Greensboro 


Greensboro 


Gadsden 


Miss Farris Davis 


Jasper 


Jasper 


Hamilton 


J. M. Guilliams 


Woodrow Wilson 


Tampa 


Hillsborough Robert M. Ray 


George Washington 


Tampa 


Hillsborough 


D. M. Cook 


Umatilla 


Umatilla 


Lake 


W. C. Finney 


Williston 


Williston 


Levy 


J. A. Osteen 


Winter Park 


Winter Park 


Orange 


M. J. Okerlund 


Delray 


Delray 


Palm Beach 


J. E. McKean 


Frostproof 


Frostproof 


Polk 


W. 0. Smith 


Enterprise 


Enterprise 


Volusia 


Mrs. Marie R. Jones 


Standard Intermediate High Schools 


Name of School 


Town 


County 


Principal 


Alachua 


Alachua 


Alachua 


L. Golden 


Lake Butler 


Lake Butler 


Bradford 


R. H. Terry 


Avon Park 


Avon Park 


DeSoto 


T. G. Malphurs 


Sebring 


Sebring 


DeSoto 


E. McCulley 


Mayo 


Mayo 


Lafayette 


J. H. George 


Okeechobee County 


Okeechobee 


Okeechobee 


W. R. Terrell 


St. Cloud 


St. Cloud 


Osceola 


N. H. Bullard 


Taylor County 


Perry 


Taylor 


A. E. Riley 


Seabreeze 


Seabreeze 


Volusia 


H. E. Wakefield 




Standard Senior High Schools 




Name of School 


Town 


County 


Principal 


Gainesville 


Gainesville 


Alachua 


F. W. Buchholz 


Cocoa 


Cocoa 


Brevard 


R. L. French 


Ft. Lauderdale 


Ft. Lauderdale 


Broward 


B. B. Lane 


Columbia County 


Lake City 


Columbia 


W. H. Stephens 


Miami 


Miami 


Dade 


J. H. Workman 


DeSoto County 


Arcadia 


DeSoto 


W. N. Henderson 


Pensacola 


Pensacola 


Escambia 


J. M. Collier 


Gadsden County 


Quincy 


Gadsden 


J. A. Youngblood 


Hillsborough County Tampa 


Hillsborough 


E. L. Robinson 


Plant City 


Plant City 


Hillsborough 


S. L. Woodward 


Jackson County 


Marianna 


Jackson 


T. H. Campbell 


Leesburg 


Leesburg 


Lake 


S. A. Draper 


Gwynne 


Ft. Myers 


Lee 


W. E. Sawyer 


Leon County 


Tallahassee 


Leon 


R. M. Sealey 


Madison 


Madison 


Madison 


W. B. Gate 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



135 



Manatee County 


Bradentown 


Manatee 


J. E. Ricketson 


Sarasota 


Sarasota 


Manatee 


E. L. Beeson 


Palmetto 


Palmetto 


Manatee 


A. H. Flowers 


Ocala 


Ocala 


Marion 


W. H. Cassels 


Orlando 


Orlando 


Orange 


J. W. Simmons 


Osceola County 


Kissimmee 


Osceola 


R. M. Evans 


Palm Beach 


West Palm Beach 


Palm Beach 


B. FI. Gault 


Pasco County 


Dade City 


Pasco 


R. W. VanBrunt 


Tarpon Springs 


Tarpon Springs 


Pinellas 


G. V. Fuguitt 


Lakeland 


Lakeland 


Polk 


Chas. M. Jones 


Ft. Meade 


Ft. Meade 


Polk 


G. H. Williams 


Summerlin Institute 


Bartow 


Polk 


A. B. Connor 


Mulberry 


Mulberry 


Polk 


T. W. Yarbrough 


Winter Haven 


Winter Haven 


Polk 


C. E. Kensinger 


Putnam County 


Palatka 


Putnam 


M. P. Geiger 


St. Augustine 


St. Augustine 


St. Johns 


W. E. Knibloe 


St. Lucie County 


Ft. Pierce 


St. Lucie 


L. E. Bennett 


Sanford 


Sanford 


Seminole 


Jno. F. McKinnon 


Suwannee County 


Live Oak 


Suwannee 


H. G. Metcalf 


DeLand 


DeLand 


Volusia 


B. F. Ezell 


Daytona 


Daytona 


Volusia 


J. F. Eastham 


New Smyrna 


New Smyrna 


Volusia 


H. B. Craven 


Walton County 


DeFuniak Springs 


; Walton 


W. T. Tiller 



In addition to the foregoing 62 high schools which have already 
been accredited as standard high schools by the state department 
of education, we find that most of the others do excellent work, 
but that they fail to comply with all the requirements which 
would entitle them to accreditation, their chief failure being that 
of observing the law and the regulation requiring every teacher 
to hold a valid Florida certificate covering the subjects taught.^® 
About half of the non-standard high schools lack just a little 
of meeting the requirements for a standard senior high school.^^ 
Many of these four-year non-standard high schools are among 
the very best in the State, their graduates being admitted, with- 
out examination, to any of the schools or departments of both 
the University of Florida and the Florida State College for 
Women ; ^^ and some of them are also among the best in the 

. 66 See Directory of Florida School Officers, High Schools and other 
Educational Institutions, 1919. 

67 See Bien. Rep. of St. High Sc. Inspec, 1916-18, in Bien. Rep. of 
Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 175-345- 

68 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 180-82 ; and Bull, 
of U. S. Bu. of Ed., 1916, No. 20, p. 20. 



136 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

South, being recognized as standard high schools by the Com- 
mission on Accredited Schools of the Association of Colleges 
and Secondary Schools of the Southern States.^** 

Furthermore, we find that 32 of the 126 public high schools 
of the State have attained such high merit that they have been 
placed on the list of standard secondary schools by the Com- 
mission on Accredited Schools of the Association of Colleges 
and Secondary Schools of the Southern States.®^ This com- 
mission is composed of thirty-nine representative Southern edu- 
cators, three from each of the following states : Alabama, 
Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and 
West Virginia. Its main purpose is to standardize the secondary 
schools of the South. It meets annually for the purpose of con- 
sidering a revision of its regulations, for the consideration of 
applications for accreditation from the secondary schools of the 
dififerent states, and for the purpose of providing for the pub- 
lication and distribution of the accredited list. To get on this 
list a school must meet each of the following minimum re- 
quirements : ^° 

1st. It must require for graduation the completion of a four-year 
high-school curriculum embracing fourteen standard unit's. 

2d. The scholastic attainment of three-fourths of the teachers of 
academic subjects must be equivalent to graduation from a college be- 
longing to the Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the 
Southern States, or a college approved by the commission. 

3d. No teacher should hear more than five recitations a day, schools 
in which teachers hear as many as six being inspected by the commission 
with extreme care. 

4th. It must have library and laboratory facilities adequate for the 
needs of instruction. 

Sth. Its environment and equipment must be such as to insure hy- 
gienic conditions for the pupils and teachers. 

6th. It must rank well in efficiency of instruction, acquired habits of 
thought and speech, and general intellectual and moral tone, as evidenced 
by rigid thorough-going, sympathetic inspection. 

69 See Report of the Commission on Accredited Schools of the Asso- 
ciation of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, 1919, 

P-7. 

''o See Report of the Commission on Accredited Schools of the Associa- 
tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, 1919, 
pp. 15-17. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



137 



7th. It must employ not less than three teachers who devote all their 
time to high-school instruction. 

8th. It must fill out the regular annual application blank furnished for 
that purpose. In case of schools with twelve or more teachers, a com- 
plete report on teachers once every three years will be sufficient, but 
full data as to changes must be given annually. 

pth. It must have not more than thirty pupils per teacher. 

Schools meeting these requirements are recognized by school 
authorities throughout the South as standard secondary schools, 
and graduates of these schools are given full credit for the work 
they have done, not only in all the higher educational institutions 
of the South, but also in some of the strongest of the North. 
The public high schools of Florida v^'hich have met these re- 
quirements and vv^ere accredited by the commission January, 1919, 
together w^ith their location and the name of their principal, 
are as follows : ^^ 



Public High Schools on the Southern Accredited List 



Name of School 


Toivn 


County 


Principal 


DeSoto County 


Arcadia 


DeSoto 


W. N. Henderson 


Manatee County 


Bradentown 


Manatee 


J. B. Ricketson 


Clearwater 


Clearwater 


Pinellas 


J. I. Reese 


Caytona 


Dayton a 


Volusia 


J. F. Eastham 


Walton County 


DeFuniak Springs 


1 Walton 


W. T. Tiller 


DeLand 


DeLand 


Volusia 


B. F. Ezell 


Ft. Lauderdale 


Ft. Lauderdale 


Broward 


B. B. Lane 


Ft. Meade 


Ft. Meade 


Polk 


G. H. Williams 


Gwynne 


Ft. Myers 


Lee 


W. E. Sawyer 


St. Lucie County 


Ft. Pierce 


St. Lucie 


L. E. Bennett 


Gainesville 


Gainesville 


Alachua 


F. W. Buchholz 


Osceola County 


Kissimmee 


Osceola 


R. M. Evans 


Lakeland 


Lakeland 


Polk 


Chas. M. Jones 


Largo 


Largo 


Pinellas 


A. W. Hayes 


Leesburg 


Leesburg 


Lake 


S. A. Draper 


Suwannee County 


Live Oak 


Suwannee 


H. G. Metcalf 


Miami 


Miami 


Dade 


J. H. Workman 


New Smyrna 


New Smyrna 


Volusia 


H. B. Craven 


Ocala 


Ocala 


Marion 


W. H. Cassels 


Putnam County 


Palatka 


Putnam 


M. P. Geiger 


Palmetto 


Palmetto 


Manatee 


A. H. Flowers 


Pensacola 


Pensacola 


Escambia 


J. M. Collier 


Plant City 


Plant City 


Hillsborough 


S. L. Woodward 


71 Ibid., p. 7. 









138 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



Gadsden County 
St. Petersburg 
Sanford 
Sarasota 
Leon County 
Hillsborough County 
Tarpon Springs 
Wauchula 
Palm Beach 



Quincy 

St. Petersburg 

Sanford 

Sarasota 

Tallahassee 

Tampa 

Tarpon Springs 

Wauchula 

West Palm Beach 



Gadsden 

Pinellas 

Seminole 

Manatee 

Leon 

Hillsborough 

Pinellas 

DeSoto 

Palm Beach 



J, A. Youngblood 
Earle C. Case 
Jno. F. McKinnon 
E. L. Beeson 
R. M. Sealey 
E. L. Robinson 
G. V. Fuguitt 
D. B. Shaver 
B. H. Gauh 



To repeat, in providing secondary-school advantages for her 
young people Florida is equal, if not superior, to any state in 
the South. This is evident from the fact that she has on 
the Southern accredited list more public high schools than any 
other state in the South, excepting Georgia, Texas, and West 
Virginia, and that she has, in proportion to her population, more 



TABLE XVI 

Number of Public High Schools on the Southern Accredited List in 
Each of the States (1919) 



States 



Florida 

West Virginia . , 

Georgia 

Texas 

South Carolina. 

Kentucky 

Virginia 

Arkansas 

Louisiana 

North Carolina 

Alabama 

Mississippi. . . . 
Tennessee 



Total 


Number per 


number" 


100,000 people* 


32 


3-20 


43 


2.98 


41 


1.40 


63 


1.36 


18 


1.08 


26 


1.07 


24 


1.07 


17 


.96 


II 


.85 


21 


•85 


19 


.71 


13 


.60 


14 


.60 



"^ See Report of the Commission on Accredited Schools of the Association of 
Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, 1919; and Bull, of U. S. 
Bu. of Ed., 1916, No. 20, pp. 91-94- 

^ Based on estimates by the United States census bureau for 191 8. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 139 

than these, even, and far more than any of the others, as is 
shown by the foregoing table. 

Summary 

Since 1892 there has been marked progress in public elementary 
and high-school education in Florida. For example, elementary 
instruction has been greatly extended. The enrollment in the 
common schools has increased from less than 100,000 to more 
than 225,000; the average daily attendance, from a little over 
60,000 to almost 166,000; and the average length of the school 
term in days, from about 100 to 133. In this connection the 
following means have been quite helpful: compulsory school- 
attendance, educational campaigns, school-improvement associa- 
tions, better and more adequate school buildings, grounds, equip- 
ment and teachers, and the transportation of pupils to and from 
school at public expense. But in addition to the improvement in 
the enrollment, attendance, and length of term, the common- 
school curricula, also, have been considerably improved, the 
courses offered having been both increased and enriched. 

The progress made in public high-school education, however, 
has been still more noticeable. The number of pupils has in- 
creased from less than 700 to more than 7,000. The means used 
in effecting this increase have been, for the most part, the pro- 
vision of more adequate and suitable school plants and the em- 
ployment of a larger and more efficient teaching staff. The 
courses of study, too, have been greatly improved, both in quan- 
tity and quality. In fact, the State has made such rapid progress 
in all phases of high-school education that the advantages now 
offered equal, if not surpass, those offered by any other Southern 
state. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AW AKEN\NG- Continued 

C. Vocational Education 

The Extension of Vocational Education. — The term ''' voca- 
tional education " is here used to indicate the types of work 
included in the general field of industrial education, home eco- 
nomics, and agricultural and commercial pursuits. Now, at 
first — that is, in the nineties — very little was done in the way 
of providing instruction and training in any of these fields in 
either the public elementary or secondary schools. Some in- 
struction in the elements of bookkeeping and agriculture was 
offered in a few of the best elementary schools, and a com- 
mercial department seems to have been established in some of 
the leading high schools ; ^ but this is practically all that was 
done until about the year 1900. About that time the St. Peters- 
burg Normal and Industrial School — one of the best public 
schools in the State — was established.^ From the first, excel- 
lent home-economics and industrial departments were maintained. 
But for several years this was the only public school which 
offered work along these two lines.^ Gradually, however, the 
people awoke to the necessity of vocational education ; and so 
courses in these two vocational fields, and also in agriculture 
and the commercial subjects, began to be inaugurated in both 
the grammar and high-school grades of the public schools. Dur- 
ing the last decade no little progress has been made in this 
direction. The number of schools offering such courses and also 
the number of students enrolled therein have both greatly 
increased. 

C ommercial Departments. — For a good many years the com- 
mercial subjects have been looked upon rather favorably by both 

1 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1894-95, H, 2223 ; also Bien. Rep. 
of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1896-98, pp. 36s and 405. 

2 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1898-1900, pp. 315-19; and 
Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, pp. 168 and 195-99. 

s See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, p. 20. 

140 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 141 

the patrons and the school officers. Consequently, they have had 
more or less attention in the public schools, especially in the 
high schools. But at first only elementary bookkeeping was 
offered, and this only in the leading schools. Later, however, 
other subjects were introduced. Within the last decade a reg- 
ular commercial department has been established in a number of 
the high schools, and some excellent work has been done. In 
1915-16 thirteen of these schools were reported as having 321 
students in their commercial courses.* 

Commercial Courses of Study. — Outside of the elementary 
principles of bookkeeping, very little commercial instruction has 
been offered in any of the elementary schools. Commercial 
courses of a definite vocational character have been confined to 
the high schools. No uniform curriculum has been followed 
by the various schools, but the one here given represents fairly 
well the commercial work usually offered.^ 

Typical Commercial Curriculum 

First Year Second Year 

Business English Business English 

Spelling . Correspondence 

Penmanship Spelling 

Commercial Arithmetic Penmanship 

Shorthand Commercial Arithmetic 

Touch Tj^pewriting Touch Typewriting 

Commercial Law Bookkeeping 

Departments of Industrial Education. — The term " industrial 
education " is here used to denote the field of vocational educa- 
tion which has for its object industrial advancement. It includes 
drawing and designing, manual training, applied art, and any 
kind of shop work that will help to meet the needs of manual 
workers in the trades and industries. The first school to give 
instruction in any of these industrial subjects was the high school 
at St. Petersburg, formerly known as the St. Petersburg Normal 
and Industrial Institute.'' This was the only school in which 

4 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 514. 

5 For this curriculum see Course of Study and Rules and Regulations 
Adopted by the Board of Public Instruction of Dade County, Florida, 
September 2, 1913, pp. 16-17. 

^ See page 181. 



142 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



such instruction was given until about 1908, when it began 
to be offered by other schools in the Stated Since then the 
number of schools maintaining one or more industrial features 
has considerably increased. In 191 5-16 10 of these schools were 
reported as having 337 students in their industrial courses.^ In 
1916^17 and 1917-18 quite a number of other schools were re- 
ported as offering instruction and training in industrial work.® 
This increase has been due, to some extent, to the vocational- 
education law^** assenting to and accepting the provisions of the 
Smith-Hughes Act.^^ The principal schools which were reported 
as providing for some phase of industrial education in 1917-18, 
together with their location, are as follows : ^^ 



Principal Schools Maintaining Industrial 



Name of School 

Avon Park 

Clearwater 

Dayton a 

DeLand 

Delray 

Duvali3 

Gonzalez^* 

Homestead 



Town 
Avon Park 
Clearwater 
Daytona 
DeLand 
Delray 
Jacksonville 
Gonzalez 
Homestead 



Courses (1917-18) 
County 
DeSoto 
Pinellas 
Volusia 
Volusia 
Palm Beach 
Duval 
Escambia 
Dade 



7 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, p. 20; also Bien. Rep. 
of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1908-10, p. 80. 

8 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 514- 

9 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 251-60, 291-300, 
562, 569, 590, 593, 601, 619, 639, 692, and 713. 

10 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. yz7(>- 

11 An act of Congress approved February 23, 1917. 

12 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 251-60, 291-300, 
562, 593, 601, 713, and 776; also An. Rep. of Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1919, 
I, 119 and 219. 

All these schools are excellent high schools, most of them being on 
one, or both, of the state and Southern accredited lists. 

13 In addition to the regular day classes, a few evening classes, with 
a total enrollment of 22, were conducted in connection with the ship- 
building industry and building trades in Jacksonville. The following 
year (1918-19) there were 13 separate classes, with a total enrollment 
of 446. The work was organized on the basis of short unit courses. It 
was supported by the State and the Smith-Hughes Fund. 

1* Also known as the J. M. Tate Agricultural School. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



143 



Largo 

Lemon City 
Jackson County 
Milton 
Plant City 
Safety Harbor 
Starke 
Seabreeze 
St. Petersburg 
St. Augustine 
Wauchula 
Palm Beach 



Largo 

Lemon City 

Marianna 

Milton 

Plant City 

Safety Harbor 

Starke 

Seabreeze 

St. Petersburg 

St. Augustine 

Wauchula 

West Palm Beach 



Pinellas 

Dade 

Jackson 

Santa Rosa 

Hillsborough 

Pinellas 

Bradford 

Volusia 

Pinellas 

St. Johns 

DeSoto 

Palm Beach 



Industrial Courses of Study. — In the primary and intermediate, 
or first six, grades the courses of instruction have been general 
in character, and taught by the regular teachers. But in the 
grammar and high-school grades the instruction has usually been 
somewhat prevocational and vocational, respectively, and taught 
by special teachers. The following brief outline indicates fairly 
well the instruction and training that have usually been given 
in the different industrial departments : ^^ 

Seventh Grade : Shop talks ; pencil drawings of problems to be ex- 
ecuted in wood ; and simple bench work. 

Eighth Grade : Continuation of work in seventh grade. 

Ninth Grade : Shop talks ; simple constructive drawing ; wood-turning 
of simple articles of useful value and band-sawing of simple scroll 
work; and execution of problems dealing with joinery work. 

Tenth Grade : Shop talks ; careful drawing of all articles to be made ; 
continuation of ninth-grade wood-turning and band-sawing work; and 
cabinet-making. 

Eleventh Grade: Shop talks; freehand and mechanical lettering and 
drawing; wood-turning of such object's as table legs, pedestals, etc., and 
band-sawing of fancy' scroll work; and continuation of tenth-grade 
cabinet-making. 

Twelfth Grade : Shop talks ; constructive drawing continued ; wood- 
turning and band-sawing in several branches ; and fine cabinet work. 

Departments of Home Economics. — The term " home eco- 
nomics " is here used to denote the field of vocational education 
designed to bring about better living conditions in the home. It 

15 See the outlined courses of study issued by the county boards of 
public instruction. 



144 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

includes sewing, cooking, laundering, sanitation, nursing, house- 
planning, house-furnishing, and, in fact, instruction and training 
in any subject related to the general problem of home-mak- 
ing and home-keeping. As in the case of industrial education, 
the first school to inaugurate such a department was the high 
school at St. Petersburg, in 1900.^*^ This was the only school 
in which a department of home economics was maintained 
until about 1908, when such a department was inaugurated by 
two schools in Tampa.^^ Since then the number of schools 
ofifering instruction and training in one or more subjects of 
home economics has considerably increased. In 1915-16 there 
were 18 schools reported as maintaining a home-economics de- 
partment, the total enrollment in these departments being 596.^^ 
In 1916-17 and 1917-18 quite a number of other schools were 
reported as maintaining such a department. ^^ In addition, there 
were several counties in which a home-demonstration agent 
was employed to conduct practical demonstration work in home 
economics, not only for the boys and girls in the schools, but 
also for the adults in the various localities.^" This increase 
of attention to this phase of vocational education has been due, 
partly to the vocational-education law mentioned above,-^ and 
partly to a law passed in 191 5,-" which empowers the school board 
for any county and the board of trustees for any special-tax 
school-district to establish and maintain a department of home 
economics in any of the high schools over which they have 
jurisdiction, and empowers the school board for any county also 
to employ a county agent to give practical demonstration work 
in home economics and to aid the county superintendent and 
teachers in giving practical education along this line. In 1917-18 
thirteen counties were reported as having such an agent : ^° 

16 See page 140. 

i'^ See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, p. 20; also Bien. Rep. 
of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1908-10, p. 80. 

IS See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 515. 

19 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 251-60, 291-300, 
562, 569, 590, 593, 599, 619, 627, 639, 646, 6^z, 692, IZT, 75 1, 763, and 768. 

20 Ihid., pp. 562, 578, 590, 594, 705, 710, 714, 719, 723, 740, 752, -jdz, and 
768. 

21 See page 142. 

-- See Laws of Florida, Chap. 6833. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



145 



Bradford, Clay, DeSoto, Duval, Polk, Putnam, St. Johns, St. 
Lucie, Santa Rosa, Taylor, Volusia, Walton, and Washington. 
The principal schools reported as making provision for home- 
economics courses, together with their location, are the follow- 
ing : ^^ 

Principal Schools with Home-economics Courses (1917-18) 



Town County 

Alva Lee 

Avon Park DeSoto 

Boynton Palm Beach 

Bushnell Sumter 

Chipley Washington 

Clearwater Pinellas 

Daytona Pinellas 

DeLand Volusia 

Ft. Lauderdale Broward 

Quincy Gadsden 

Homestead Dade 

Inverness Citrus 

Marianna Jackson 

Lakeland Polk 

Largo Pinellas 

Leesburg Lake 

Lemon City Dade 

Tallahassee Leon 

Bradentown Manatee 

Milton Santa Rosa 

Montverde Lake 

Mulberry Polk 

Ocala Marion 

Orlando Orange 

Kissimmee Osceola 

West Palm Beach Palm Beach 

Dade City Pasco 

Pensacola Escambia 

Punta Gorda DeSoto 

Palatka Putnam 

23 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 251-60, 291-300, 
593, 599, 627, 639, 646, 673, 763, 768, 776, and 886. 

24 One of the four schools designated by the state board in 1917 to 
receive aid from the State and the Smith-Hughes Fund in paying the 
salary of the teacher of home economics. 

-° In 1918 this school was added to the list of schools to be aided by 

the State and the Smith-Hughes Fund in paying the salary of the home- 
economics teacher. 



Name of School 

Alva 

Avon Park 

Boynton 

Bushnell^* 

Chipley 

Clearwater 

Daytona 

DeLand24 

Ft. Lauderdale 

Gadsden County 

Homestead 

Inverness 

Jackson County^* 

Lakeland 

Largo 

Leesburg 

Lemon City 

Leon County25 

Manatee County 

Milton 

Montverde 

Mulberry 

Ocala 

Orlando 

Osceola County 

Palm Beach 

Pasco County 

Pensacola 

Punta Gorda 

Putnam Cotmty 



146 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



St. Petersburg 


St. Petersburg 


Pinellas 


Safety Harbor 


Safety Harbor 


Pinellas 


Seabreeze 


Seabreeze 


Volusia 


Summerlin Institute 


Bartow 


Polk 


Umatilla 


Umatilla 


Lake 


Walton County 


DeFuniak Springs 


Walton 


Wauchula 


Wauchula 


DeSoto 


Williston24 


Williston 


Levy 


Winter Haven 


Winter Haven 


Polk 


Zellwood 


Zellwood 


Orange 



Courses of Study in Home Economics. — Until very recently the 
courses of study have usually been limited to only a few prob- 
lems in cooking and sewing. This has been due very largely to 
the lack of proper community support, competent teachers, and 
suitable equipment. But with the overcoming of these limita- 
tions the courses have been made much broader. In most of 
the schools maintaining a home-economics department attention 
is given, not only to cooking and sewing, but also to the prin- 
ciples of nutrition, the planning of meals, the composition and 
manufacure of various foods, and other subjects having as their 
object the betterment of living conditions in the home. Such 
instruction is usually given in the seventh, eighth, ninth, and 
tenth grades ; and about one and a half hours per week are 
devoted to it. In some schools, however, more advanced courses 
are offered in the eleventh and twelfth grades, also, such courses 
being designed for the preparation of teachers and for those 
who desire to become proficient in the household sciences and 
arts. The following group of subjects is rather typical of what 
has been offered in the various departments of home economics : ^'^ 

Seventh Grade : The production and use of foods ; the preparation and 
serving of foods ; easy sewing such as hemming towels, darning stock- 
ings, patching muslin and gingham, making aprons, and so forth. 

Eighth Grade : Principles of food preparation ; selecting and preparing 
foods ; planning and serving meals, and computing their cost ; mending 
real articles; and cutting, making, and fitting a few simple garment's. 

Ninth Grade : Continuation of work begun in the grammar grades in 
regard to foods ; principles of nutrition ; dressmaking ; and household 
furnishing. 

^'^ See outlined courses of study issued by the county boards of pub! c 
instruction. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 147 

Tenth Grade : Nutrition work of ninth grade continued ; the composi- 
tion and manufacture of various foods; dressmaking; and household 
management. 

Eleventh Grade: Preserving and jelly-making; the growth and effect 
of bacteria in foods; household sanitation; dressmaking; household 
furnishing; and a study of the principal textile fibres. 

Twelfth Grade: Nutrition and dietetics; millinery; renovating old 
materials ; preparing clothing budgets ; and making graduating dress. 

Agricultural Departments. — Until quite recently agriculture 
has been regarded with absolute indifference and even studied 
neglect by the local school authorities and public-school teachers. 
As we have seen,^^ a law was passed in 1903, and re-enacted in 
1905, requiring the teachers to offer such lessons in agriculture 
as were provided for in the county courses of study. But it 
seems that nothing was done by the county boards of education 
in the way of providing for any agricultural instruction until 
1909,-^ when a law was passed making the elementary principles 
of agriculture a prescribed subject of study for all the common 
schools, and requiring the school boards to provide for a course 
in this subject and to see that it was taught by the teachers 
of their respective counties as thoroughly as any other prescribed 
branch. Since then agriculture has been gaining a permanent 
and important place in the public-school curriculums. Not only 
has a course in the elements of agriculture been introduced in 
practically all the common schools, but a regular agricultural 
department has been inaugurated in several of the high schools. 
In 1915-16 there were 12 schools reported as having a depart- 
ment of agriculture, the average enrollment in these departments 
being 24.^^ Since then other schools have been added to the 
list,^" this increase being largely due to the vocational-education 
law already referred to,^^ and to a law passed two years before,^^ 
which authorizes the county boards of education and the boards 
of trustees for the special-tax school-districts to establish and 

2'^ See page 119. 

28 See page 120. 

29 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 515. 

30 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 251-60, 291-300, 
S62, 585, 601, 627, 639, 6531, 68s, 692, 776-77, and 884-86; also An. Rep. 
of Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1919, I, 118. 

31 See page 142. 

32 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6833. 



148 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

maintain a department of agriculture in any of the high schools 
under their control.^^ Also, several counties of the State have 
been reported^* as employing, in accordance with an act of 1915,^^ 
one or more county agents to conduct practical demonstration 
work in agriculture and to aid the county superintendent and 
teachers in giving instruction along this line.^^ As a rule, the 
work of these agricultural departments and demonstration 
agents has met with the hearty approval of the people of the 
State, as is shown by their willingness to support it.^'^ In view 
of this loyalty and appreciation, and in view of the fact that 
a state director for vocational education and a full-time state 
supervisor of agriculture have been provided for,^^ it is quite 
likely that a much larger number of the schools will soon 
be making provision for this phase of education. 

Courses of Study in Agriculture. — As stated above, since 1909 
all the common schools of the State have been required to offer 
a course in the elementary principles of agriculture. Such a 
course has usually been given in the eighth grade, and has been 
general in its character. Until recently it was limited almost 
entirely to textbook instruction, the textbook used being Dug- 
gar's Agriculture for Southern Schools}^ Within the past few 
years, however, school gardening or home-project work has re- 
ceived considerable attention in several counties.^^ In the high- 
school grades the work has not been confined to the study of 
a textbook, but from the first has included both instruction and 

33 The principal schools reported as making provision for agricultural 
work in 1918-19 are located as follows : Bonifay, in Holmes County ; 
Gonzalez, in Escambia County; Greensboro, in Gadsden County; Largo, 
in Pinellas County; Lemon City, in Dade County; Madison, in Madison 
County; Montverde, in Lake County; Pahokee, in Palm Beach County; 
Starke, in Bradford County; and Wauchula, in DeSoto County. 

34 See Bien. Rep. of Supt'. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 562, 578, 627, 632, 
(>73, 711, 714, 719, 72:^, 740, 752, and 763. 

35 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6833. 

36 In 1917-18 the following counties employed such agents : Bradford, 
Clay, Jackson, Jefferson, Orange, Putnam, St. Johns, St. Lucie, Santa 
Rosa, Taylor, Volusia, and Walton. 

37 See An. Rep. of Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1919, Vol. I, p. 118. 

38 See outlined courses of study issued by the county boards of public 
instruction. 

39 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 562, 578, 627, 62,2, 
673, 711, 714, 719, 723, 740, 752, and 76^. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 149 

training somewhat adapted to local needs. ^^ Since the passage 
of the law which assented to and accepted the provisions of 
the Smith-Hughes Act, the agricultural work in most of the 
high schools has been strictly vocational. In addition to the 
study of such topics as are suited to local conditions, each 
student is required to carry out, under the direction of the 
teacher of agriculture, a piece of practical work at home, which 
involves the application of principles learned at school.^" Thus 
we see that both the elementary and high schools have begun to 
be of real value in preparing students for one of the most im- 
portant forms of human activity. Because of the widespread 
interest that is beginning to be manifested in this type of educa- 
tion, there is every reason to believe that the courses of study will 
soon be greatly enlarged and enriched. 

D. Special Types of Schools 

The Extension of Special Education. — During the present 
period (1892-1921) Florida has made some progress in the di- 
rection of providing instruction and training for special classes, 
also. In 1892 the only school that was maintained for special 
classes was a school for the blind, deaf, and dumb. Since then 
not only has this one been greatly improved, but two new types 
of schools have been established and maintained — reform schools 
and kindergartens. 

School for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb. — As already pointed 
out,*^ a school for the blind and deaf-mutes of the State, known 
as the Florida Institute for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb,''^ was 
established by act of the legislature at St. Augustine in 1883, 
and opened for the admission of students in December of the 
following year. From the very beginning it has had a steady 
growth.*^ Since 1891 the value of its grounds and buildings has 

*o See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 777; also An. Rep. 
of Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1919, Vol. I, p. 118. 

*i See pages 104-06. 

*2 In 1909 its name was changed to the Florida School for the Deaf 
and the Blind (see Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5927)- 

*3 For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report 
for 1892-94, pp. 181-83; 1894-96, pp. 139-43; 1896-98, pp. 307-12; 1898- 
T900, pp. 211-23; 1900-1902, pp. 199-207; 1902-04, pp. 207-20; 1904-06, 
pp. 241-50; 1906-08, pp. 177-90; 1908-10, pp. 187-201; 1910-12, pp. 184-92; 
19I2-I4, pp. 305-11; 1914-16, pp. 365-94; 1916-18, pp. 392-400. 



150 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

increased from $16,000 to about $250,000; its annual income 
from $10,000 to $77,246; its annual expenditure from $10,000 
to $37,450 ; the number of officers and teachers from 9 to 32 ; 
and the number of students enrolled from 43 — 36 deaf and 7 
blind — to 185** — 131 deaf and 54 blind.''^ Also, better methods 
of instruction have been introduced, and the number of studies 
has been increased. In the deaf department the combined 
method, or eclectic system, has been adopted ; and the courses 
of study have been extended so that those who desire may prepare 
for admission to Gallaudet College, Washington, D. C. In the 
blind department the New York point system has been adopted, 
and courses of instruction have been outlined in accordance 
with the textbooks obtainable under this system. Within recent 
years the graduates of both these departments, as President 
Walker says, have been almost without exception entirely self- 
supporting.**' 

Reform Schools. — The next class of children to be provided 
for outside of the regular public schools were those who stood 
in danger of becoming criminals — that is, children in need of 
special moral training. A school for boys of this class, known 
as the Florida State Reform School,*"^ was established in pur- 
suance of an act of the legislature, approved June 4, 1897.** 
It was located at Marianna, in Jackson County, and was opened 
on January i, 1900.*^ The object of its establishment was to 
reform young offenders of the law and restore them to the 
community with purposes and characters fitting them for good 
citizens, and with a trade fitting them for self-maintenance.^" 
Until January of 1919, however, this institution was nothing 

4* The enrollment for 1917-18. 

45 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 1244, 1250; Rep. of U. S. 
Com. of Ed., 1917, 11, 661 ; and Bien. Rep. of the President of the 
Florida School for the Deaf and the Blind, 1916-18, 7-10, 29-37. 

*o See the state superintendent's report for 1912-14, p. 308; 1914-16, 
p. 381 ; and 1916-18, p. 397. 

^"^ In 1913 its name was changed to the Florida Industrial School for 
Boys (see Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6529). 

48 See Laws of Florida, 1897, Chap. 4565. 

49 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1898-1900, pp. 221-23. 

50 See Laws of Florida, 1897, Chap. 4565, Sec. 4. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 151 

more than a retention place for juvenile delinquents.^^ But 
since then it has made remarkable progress. Courses of study 
outlined for the regular public elementary and high schools, in- 
struction and training in twelve different industries, military 
training, a modern system of farming, and so forth, have been 
inaugurated; a teaching body of seven well-trained persons has 
been employed; and a building program looking to the erection 
of not less than fifteen new buildings has been adopted. ^^ In- 
deed, it is rapidly becoming what it was intended to be — a 
real reclamation school for delinquent boys.^^ 

A similar school for girls was provided for by the legislature 
of 1915.^* This institution, known as the Florida Industrial 
School for Girls, was located at Ocala, in Marion County, and 
was opened for the admission of students in 19 17. From the 
beginning it has been what it was meant to be — a reclamation 
school for girl delinquents.^^ Three teachers have been em- 
ployed throughout the year; and instruction has been given in 
reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, language, story telling, 
history, geography, physiology, agriculture, home economics, and 
industrial work.''" It has indeed rendered a splendid service 
to the State. With the erection of a new dormitory, hospital, 
laundry, and dairy, for which the legislature of 1919 made an 
appropriation, it promises to be of still greater service.^'^ 

Kindergartens. — Another special type of school for which legal 
provision has been made is the kindergarten. In 1905 the legis- 
lature passed an act which empowers any county board of public 
instruction or board of trustees of any special-tax school-district 
to establish and maintain kindergartens in communities that 

51 Superintendent Frank E. McClane, in a letter written to me on 
January 26, 1920. 

52 Superintendent McClane, in letter cited. 

53 The enrollment for 1918-19 was 209. 

54 See Laws of Florida, 191 5, Chap. 6840. 

55 However, no girl is admitted who is pregnant. If such a one is re- 
ceived without knowledge of her condition, she is at once returned to 
the judge who committed her. 

56 The number of students enrolled in 1918-19 was 40. 

57 There is no printed report of the school. The information that I 
have concerning it has, for the most part, been obtained from its super- 
intendent, Miss Lumie B. Davis. 



152 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

guarantee the attendance of twenty-five kindergarten pupils. 
Every kindergarten established must be a part of the public 
school in the same community, and under the direction and con- 
trol of its principal ; and every teacher employed as principal 
of a kindergarten department must hold a certificate of grad- 
uation from a reputable kindergarten training-school.^^ As yet, 
however, not many public-school kindergartens have been es- 
tablished.^® But, in view of the growing interest in this type 
of school, which I have observed among the people of several 
of the towns and cities, I feel that there will soon be quite a 
number of such schools in the State. 

E. Higher Education 

Higher Education Prior to i8g2. — Thus far, not much has 
been said in regard to higher education, because very little had 
actually been achieved along this line prior to the present period 
(1892-1921). However, the men who laid the foundations of 
the various institutions of the State were not guilty of over- 
looking the importance of such education. As early as 1823, 
only one year after Florida had been organized as a territory, 
two townships of land, known as seminary lands, were re- 
served by the General Government for the purpose of aiding 
in the maintenance of two higher educational institutions.*'" The 
following year the subject of higher education was discussed in 
the legislative council. In December, 1835, the register of the 
land office was authorized and directed to select and secure the 
seminary lands.^^ The next year a university was proposed, 
of which fourteen persons were named as trustees, in the act 
of Congress which authorized the sale of lands for its support.®^ 
Nothing, however, seems to have resulted from this proposal. 
In 1837, 1842, and 1843, legislative acts were passed providing 
for the preservation and leasing of the seminary lands,*'- the 
act of 1843 providing also for the lending of all sums obtained 

58 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5387. 

59 In 1914-15 there were but 10 reported, with a total enrollment of 
SZS (see Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 15). 

60 See United States Statutes at Large, Vol. Ill, p. 756. 

61 See Thompson's Digest of the Statute Law of Florida, 1847, p. 40. 

62 See Report on Seminary Lands, in House Journal, Adjourned Ses- 
sion, 1845, appendix. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING ^ 153 

from this source on bond and mortgage at eight per cent. In 
1845, when Florida was admitted to statehood, she was granted 
by the General Government two entire townships of land in 
addition to the two which had already been reserved, making 
a total of nearly one hundred thousand acres,*'^ the proceeds 
of which were to be used for the establishment of two institutions 
of higher learning, one to be located east and the other west of 
the Suwannee River.''* The state constitution adopted that year 
provided that such proceeds should be and remain a perpetual 
fund, and that the interest of this fund should be appropriated 
to no other purpose than the one specified.'''* Two years later 
the register of public lands was authorized to protect and rent 
or sell these lands, and to invest the proceeds in United States 
stock.^^ 

The first step taken by Florida toward realizing the object 
of the foregoing Federal Grant was in 1846, when a board 
consisting of four members, two from each section of the State, 
was directed to give its views as to establishing the two educa- 
tional institutions."^ The second step was in 1851, when a law 
was passed authorizing the establishment of two seminaries of 
learning, one upon the east and the other upon the west side 
of the Suwannee River. Their first object was to be the pro- 
fessional training of teachers ; their second, the giving of in- 
struction in agriculture and the mechanic arts, " in the funda- 
mental laws, and in what regards the rights and duties of 
citizens." As soon as the buildings of either seminary were 
completed, half the interest that had arisen from the proceeds 
of the sales of the seminary lands was to be placed to its credit."® 

By an act approved January 6, 1853, the seminary east of 
the Suwannee River was located at Ocala, in the county of 
Marion, as the result of an offer by the citizens of Marion 
County to give the State several town lots, with the buildings 
erected thereon, and one thousand six hundred dollars in money."^ 

*3 The exact amount received was 85,714 acres. 

64 See congressional act of March 3, 1845. 

65 See article ten. 

66 See Laws of Florida, 1846-47, p. 47. 

67 See Laws of Florida, 1846-47, p. 83. 

68 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, p. 97. 

69 See Laws of Florida, 1852-53, p. 83. 



154 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

This school, known as the East Florida Seminary, was opened 
in the fall of that year. Here it remained until 1866, when it 
was removed to Gainesville,'^" where for eleven years it continued 
to be, as before its removal, but little more than a local ele- 
mentary school.'^^ But in June, 1877, Professor Edwin P. Cater 
was called to the principalship, which position he held for twenty- 
two yearsJ^ At once he began, and continued, to make im- 
provements.'^^ That year the work was graded as thoroughly 
as possible, and the foundation laid for steady improvement 
along other lines. Gradually the elementary courses were 
dropped, and more advanced ones added ; '* a more competent 
teaching force was employed ; and better buildings and equip- 
ment were provided. From 1883 to 1892 the seminary did ex- 
':ellent work, and was patronized by the entire State. However, 
it was not a college, but a high-grade secondary school with 
the military feature and a commercial and a teacher-training 
department. 

The seminary west of the Suwannee River was placed at 
Tallahassee on January i, 1857, in consequence of an offer on 
the part of the citizens of that town to give the State ten thousand 
dollars, including the property of the Florida Institute, a school 
owned by them, and also to pay two thousand dollars per annum 
for the tuition of the children of said town.'^^ This school, 
known as the West Florida Seminary, was opened the following 
month for the instruction of boys. No girls were admitted until 
the fall of 1858, after which instruction was given both the 
sexes, but in separate departments until 1882.'^® Like the other 
seminary, this one was for the first fourteen years but little 

70 See Laws of Florida, 1865-66, p. 50. 

71 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, pp. 24-25. 

72 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1898-1900, p. 179. 

73 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, pp. 24-25, 56-58; 
1880-82, pp. 15-16; 1882-84, pp. 10-12; 1884-86, p. 9; Annual Rep. of Supt. 
of Pub. Ins., 1887, p. 12; 1888, p. 14; 1889, pp. 12-15; 1889-90, pp. 12-15; 
1890-91, pp. 11-12; and 1891-92, pp. 14-15. 

74 The most important additions were the establishment of normal 
school work in 1880, the adoption of military training in 1883, and later 
the introduction of certain commercial subjects. 

75 See Laws of Florida, 1856-57, p. 28. 

76 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1880-82, p. 16. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 155 

more than an elementary school for the children of the county 
in which it was located." But from 1880 to 1892 considerable 
progress was made. In 1880 the primary courses were abol- 
ished.'^® Two years later coeducation of the sexes and military 
training were adopted, which helped to improve the work of 
the institution."*' In 1883 the buildings were enlarged; new equip- 
ment was procured ; a normal school established ; and the num- 
ber of the faculty increased to seven, which was larger than 
it had ever been. As a result, there was also a larger enroll- 
ment than ever before, seventy-four students being enrolled, of 
whom fifteen were from beyond the limits of Leon County — the 
county in which the school was located.'^^ In August, 1887, when 
Professor George M. Edgar was called to the presidency of 
the institution, other improvements were inaugurated. For ex- 
ample, the work of the seminary was at once reorganized, the 
military feature being discontinued and the scope of instruction 
limited to four years of work — two high-school and two col- 
legiate.^" During the next four years the scope of instruction 
was extended, a splendid building erected, and better equipment 
provided.^^ In 1891-92 there were seven years of instruction 
offered — • three in the high-schooJ and four in the collegiate 
department. The curriculum included courses in English, Latin, 
Greek, German, French, mathematics, history, political economy, 
philosophy, and natural science. That same year there was a 
faculty of five well-trained teachers and eighty matriculated 
students. Thus it is seen that considerable progress has been 
made since 1880. However, the seminary still lacked a great 
deal of being a standard college — that is, in the sense in which 
the term is used today. 

Another legislative step toward the provision for higher educa- 
tion is found in the law passed February 18, 1870,®- and amended 
February 17, 1872,*^ which provided for the establishment of 

" See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80. pp. 23-25. 

78 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, p. 59. 

79 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1882-84, pp. lo-ii. 

80 See Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1887, pp. 9-12. 

81 See Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1888, pp. 14-16 ; 1889, pp. 10- 
12; 1889-90, pp. 10-12; 1890-91, pp. lo-ii; and 1891-92, pp. 12-13. 

82 See Laws of Florida, 1870, Chap. 1766. 

83 See Laws of Florida, 1872, Chap. 1905. 



156 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

a college — to be known as the Florida Agricultural College — in 
accordance with the terms of the congressional act commonly 
called the Morrill, or Land-Grant, Act of 1862.^* Having com- 
plied with the provisions of the congressional act, the State 
received from the General Government in 1872 ninety thousand 
acres of land, the proceeds from the sale of which were to be 
used for the support of the proposed college.^^ The next year 
a site for the institution was selected in Alachua County, but 
nothing further was accomplished.^*' In 1875 the location was 
changed to Eau Gallic, in Brevard County, where a temporary 
college building was completed the following year.^'^ But, as 
before, no educational work was inaugurated. The place seems 
to have been entirely unfit. ^^ Consequently, the new board of 
trustees, which was provided in March, 1877, appointed a com- 
mittee of three to decide upon a suitable location.^^ Nothing, 
however, was done until 1883, when the college was located at 
Lake City, in Columbia County, in consequence of its " central 
position and acknowledged healthfulness " and of a " generous 
and public-spirited offer " on the part of its citizens.^*' During 
the year 1883-84 an excellent building was completed, a faculty 
of five members selected, and a curriculum arranged. On No- 
vember I, 1884, the work of instruction was finally begun, with 
an enrollment of thirty-eight male students,®^ all of whom were 
in the preparatory department.^- For the first two years this 
institution was but little more than a local high school with 

84 For the Morrill Act see U. S. Stat, at L., 37fh Congress, p. 503; 
and for an amendment to it see U. S. Stat, at L., 39th Congress, p. 208. 

85 On December 21, 1874, this amounted to $80,000, with which the 
trustees had purchased $100,000 worth of Florida bonds (see Annual Rep. 
of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1873-74, PP- 40-42). 

86 See Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1872-73, PP- 17-31 ; and An- 
nual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1873-74, pp. 40-42. 

87 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1874-76, pp. 96-106. 

88 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, p. 56. 

89 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, pp. 57-58. The au- 
thority for this was given by the legislature in November, 1877 (see 
Laws of Florida, 1877, p. 103). 

»o See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1882-84, PP- 12-13. 

91 Women were not admitted until the fall of 1895. 

92 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1884-85, p. 49. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 157 

military training.''^ In 1886 the board of trustees, in order to 
effect an improvement, attempted to unite it with what was then 
known as the Florida University^* under the name of the Uni- 
versity of Florida and Agricultural College.^^ Nothing, however, 
came of this attempt. But from 1886 to 1892 considerable im- 
provement was made.®*' For example, some of the elementary 
courses were dropped, and more advanced ones added; five new 
buildings were erected; better equipment was provided; and, in 
1887, a^ agricultural experiment station was, in accordance with 
the terms of the Hatch Act,''^ established as a department of 
the college. In 1891-92 there were six years of instruction 
offered — two in the preparatory and four in the collegiate de- 
partment. The curriculum included courses in English, Latin, 
mathematics, history, philosophy, physics, chemistry, biology, 
veterinary science, agriculture and horticulture, manual training 
and drawing, civil engineering, and military science and tactics. 
That same year there were over one hundred matriculated stu- 
dents, nearly fifty per cent of whom were in the college proper,®^ 
and a faculty of fourteen well-qualified professors. Thus it 
is evident that this institution was then providing fairly good 
opportunities for higher education ; but, as in the case of the 
West Florida Seminary, it had been offering such opportunities 

93 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1884-S6, pp. 15-16. 

®* This so-called university was organized by private enterprise under 
a liberal charter in February, 1883, Dr. John Kost being chosen as chan- 
cellor. It was proposed that the institution should embrace five different 
schools of instruction — a college of literature and science, a college of 
medicine and surgery, a polytechnic and normal institute, a theological 
institute, and a college of law. The first two, however, were the only 
ones that were ever put into actual operation. The former was the West 
Florida Seminary; the other, the Tallahassee College of Medicine and 
Surgery. But these were conducted as branches of the university for 
only a brief duration. This scheme for a state university was soon 
dropped, Dr. Kost — apparently its author — becoming a member of the 
faculty of the Florida Agricultural College in 1886 (see Rep. of U. S. 
Com. of Ed., 1883-84, pp. 51-52; and U. S. Bu. of Ed., Cifc. of Inf., No. 
7, 1888, pp. 46-47). 

95 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1884-86, pp. 14-15. 

96 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1884-86, pp. 12-14; Annual 
Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1887, pp. 16-17; 1888, pp. 12-13; 1889, pp. 
9-10; 1889-90, pp. 8-10; 1890-91, pp. 7-12; and 1891-92, pp. 9-12. 

97 For this act see U. S. Stat, at L., Vol. XXIV, p. 440. 

98 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, Vol. II, p. 1188. 



158 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

only three or four years, and there were but few of the youth 
of the State who availed themselves of them. 

Still another step in the direction of higher education was 
taken in 1887, when a law was enacted providing for the estab- 
lishment of two state normal colleges — one for whites and one 
for negroes.®'' The former, known as the State Normal College 
for White Students, was placed at' DeFuniak Springs, in Wal- 
ton County ; ^°'^ the latter, known as the State Normal College 
for Colored Students, at Tallahassee, in Leon County .^°^ These 
schools were opened in October of that year for the admission 
of both sexes. From the very first both the work of instruction 
and the attendance were rather good. However, the courses of 
study were limited almost entirely to a review or completion of 
the common-school subjects and to the professional training of 
teachers for such subjects. 

Higher Education, iSgz-igo^. — As we have just seen, Florida 
had accomplished very little in the field of higher education 
before 1892. She had made only a beginning. But during the 
years 1892-1905 there was considerable progress, as is evidenced 
by the increase in the number of students enrolled for higher 
educational work and by the improvement in the courses of in- 
struction, the teaching body, and the environment and equipment 
in each of the state institutions for higher learning. In the case 
of the East Florida Seminary^"^ a more advanced curriculum 
was offered, some of the lower work being dropped and three 
years of higher work added ; ^°^ the number of teachers was 
increased from five to seven; and the buildings and equipment 
were improved, a girls' dormitory being provided, some much 
needed apparatus purchased, and several repairs made. In the 

"9 See page 99. 

^00 This school was maintained largel}^ by annual state appropriations. 

101 This school was maintained largely by a special congressional 
appropriation, under what is commonly known as the second Morrill Act, 
and annual state appropriations to meet the requirements not provided 
for by the congressional fund. 

102 For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report 
for 1892-94, pp. 167-73; 1894-96, pp. 67-73; 1896-98, pp. 281-85; 1898- 
1900, pp. 179-84; and 1900-1902, pp. 164, 173-78. 

103 There is no record as to the exact number of students in the 
higher courses. However, there were probably sixty in 1900-1901, for 
there were ten in the graduating class that year. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 159 

case of the West Florida Seminary,^"* known as the Florida 
State College after 1901/°^ additional courses were gradually 
provided^"*' and the requirements for graduation slightly raised ; 
the enrollment was greatly increased, there being but 73 students 
in 1891-92, only 25 of whom were in the collegiate department, 
and nearly 350 in 1904-05, over 150 of whom were in the col- 
legiate department ; ^''^ the faculty, also, was greatly increased,^**^ 
there being but 4 members in 1891-92 and 17 in 1903-04;"" 
and the school plant was considerably improved, a library build- 
ing and two commodious dormitories, one each for the young 
men and young women, being constructed, some additions and 
repairs made, and nearly 5,000 standard library books and con- 
siderable laboratory equipment procured. Thus it is seen that 
the growth of this institution was quite noticeable. But the 
growth of the Florida Agricultural College, known as the Uni- 
versity of Florida after 1903,^^° was almost as great.^^^ Some 
of the courses of study were greatly enriched, and several others 
added ; ^^- the enrollment was a little more than doubled, there 

10* For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report 
for 1892-94, pp. 162-67; 1894-96, pp. 77-83; 1896-98, pp. 285-94; 1898- 
1900, pp. 184-94; 1900-1902, pp. 163-64, 169-73; and 1902-04, pp. 189-92. 

105 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, p. 163. 

106 A department of science was inaugurated in 1898; a teacher-train- 
ing department, in 1900; a music department, in 1902; and a business de- 
partment, in 1903. 

10" There were 15 in the graduating class in 1905. 

108 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 1141; and Rep. of 
U. S. Com. of Ed., 1903-04, II, 1473. 

109 No record for 1904-05. 

110 See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5272. 

111 For an account of this institution see the report of the state super- 
intendent for 1892-94, pp. 137-62; 1804-96, pp. 87-107; 1896-98, pp. 269-81; 
1898-1900, pp. 174-78; 1900-1902, pp. 164-65, 178-85; and 1902-04, pp. 
182-89. 

112 Four years' work in mechanical engineering, leading to the degree 
of bachelor of science, and two years' non-collegiate work in commerciai 
branches, stenography, typewriting, and telegraphy were inaugurated in 
1893 ; a group of courses specially fitted for training women, covering four 
years of work and leading to the degree of bachelor of science, was ar- 
ranged in 1895; and a group of courses in chemistry, civil engineering, 
and general science, each extending over four years and leading to the 
bachelor of science degree, and two years of non-collegiate work in 
mechanic art's were provided in 1901. 



160 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

being no students in 1891-92, 49 of whom were regular college 
students/^^ and 225 in 1904-05,^^* 87 of whom were regular 
college students ; ^^^ the number of teachers was exactly doubled, 
there being 28 in 1904-05 ; ^^^ and many valuable changes and 
additions in the school plant were effected, several splendid 
buildings, including a dormitory, a science building, and a gym- 
nasium, being erected and equipped, a 238-acre farm purchased 
and improved, quite a number of teaching facilities added, and 
many minor improvements made.^^*^ Also, there was no little 
progress in the two state normals. In the one for white stu- 
dents,'^^^ the curriculum was extended to cover five years' work, 
instead of two, as was the case in 1891-92, and was placed on 
a more strictly professional basis ; ^^* the enrollment was in- 
creased from 90 to 140;^^** the number of teachers from 4 to 
11;^^* and the environment and equipment were improved con- 
siderably, an excellent dormitory for young ladies, a new model 
school, a gymnasium, and a laboratory being built, three ad- 
ditional lots secured, and a few other valuable changes and ad- 
ditions made. And in the one for colored students,^^° which was 
moved to its present site^^^ in 1891, the curriculum was greatly 
changed, there being added to it a richer and more varied con- 
tent, including courses in agriculture, home economics, and man- 

113 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 1188. 

114 The enrollment for this year would have been larger, if the 
coeducational feature, established in 1895, had not been abolished in 1903. 

115 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1904-05, H, 690. 

116 The total value of the school property was increased from less than 
$200,000 to about $400,000. 

ii'' For an account of this normal see the state superintendent's report 
for 1892-94, pp. 174-76; 1894-96, pp. 111-17; 1896-98, pp. 294-300; 1898- 
1900, pp. 194-200; 1900-1902, pp. 165-66, 185-91; and 1902-04, pp. 193-200. 

lis In 1904-05 courses in the following professional subjects were given: 
history of education, theory of education, school organization and super- 
vision, school management and discipline, psychology and child study, 
and practical pedagogy (see Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1904-05, II, 787)- 

110 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 200; and Rep. of U. S. 
Com. of Ed., 1904-05, II, 794. 

1-0 For an account of this normal see the report of the state superin- 
tendent for 1892-94, pp. 177-80; 1894-96, pp. 121-28; 1896-98, pp. 301- 
307; 1898-1900, pp. 201-206; 1900-1902, pp. 166-67, 208-11; and 1902-04, 
pp. 205-07. 

121 Just a short distance from Tallahassee. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 161 

ual work of various kinds ; the enrollment was nearly doubled/^^ 
it being 79 in 1891-92, and 143^'^ in 1904-05; the teaching 
corps was increased from 6 to 19 members; ^^^ and the grounds, 
buildings, and equipment were made more adequate and suitable. 

In addition to the five mentioned, two other state institutions 
for higher education were provided during these years. These 
were the South Florida Military and Educational Institute, lo- 
cated at Bartow, and the St. Petersburg Normal and Industrial 
School, located at St. Petersburg. The former,^^* later known 
as the South Florida Military College, was established in May, 
1895, and placed under the direction and control of the state 
board of education.^^^ One scholarship for each county was 
created therein, the beneficiary being given the benefit of a full 
four-year course of instruction without any charge for tuition, 
use of textbooks, arms and equipment, board, lodging, washing, 
fuel, and lights. The scholarships were awarded by the legis- 
lators of the respective counties. The school was supported 
almost entirely by legislative appropriations. It was tolerably 
well attended, the average attendance for the first eight years 
being fifty-five. Also a fairly good type of work was done, 
its graduates standing as high in business and professional life 
as those of any other school in the State. The second insti- 
tution,^^® as already pointed out,^^'^ was established about 1900. 
At first it was supported and controlled jointly by the town of 
St. Petersburg and Hillsborough County. But in 1901 it was 
made a state school,^-* after which it was supported and con- 
trolled by St. Petersburg, the county of Hillsborough, and the 

122 See Rept. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 1284; and Rep. of U. 
S. Com. of Ed., 1904-05, II, 794. 

123 This does not include the 131 students enrolled in the model and 
preparatory schools. 

'•24 For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report 
for 1894-96, pp. 129-38; 1896-98, pp. 313-17; 1898-1900, pp. 206-11; 1900- 
1902, pp. 167-68, 191-94; and 1902-04, pp. 175-85. 

125 See Laws of Florida, 1895, Chap. 4334. 

126 For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report 
for 1898-1900, pp. 315-19; 1900-1902, pp. 168, 195-99; and 1902-04, pp. 
200-204. 

127 See page 140. 

128 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4998; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of 
Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, p. 199. 



162 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

State. Here, too, the attendance was fairly good, and tolerably 
good work was done, especially in the way of training young 
men and women for elementary and high-school work. 

Consolidation of the Higher Educational Institutions. — Thus it 
is quite evident that by 1905 Florida had made considerable 
progress in the field of higher education. However, she had 
made a mistake by endeavoring to maintain too many institu- 
tions — a greater number than was warranted by her population 
and wealth. ^~^ She had also made a mistake by not requiring 
these institutions to make satisfactory differentiation among them- 
selves and to separate their work sufficiently from that of the 
high-school system. Consequently, the cost of their maintenance 
was disproportionate to the results obtained. None realized this 
more keenly than the educational leaders, who strongly urged 
the adoption of a policy of concentration and differentiation. 
As a result, the legislature of 1905 passed an act — generally 
known as the " Buckman Act" — providing for the adoption 
of such a policy. ^^** The practical effect of this was to merge 
all the institutions for white students into two, the work of these 
being clearly differentiated from each other and that of the 
high schools of the State. The two newly created institutions 
were a university for men, known as the University of the State 
of Florida, located at Gainesville, and a college for women, 
known as the Florida Female College, located at Tallahassee. 

Higher Education since IQ05. — The remarkable advancement 
made by Florida in higher education since then has demonstrated 
the wisdom of the legislature in adopting the foregoing policy. 
There has been, as we shall see, a considerable increase in the 
number of students enrolled and a great increase in both the 
quantity and quality of work done, not only in the two insti- 
tutions for whites, but also in the one for negroes. 

The University of the State of Florida^^^ was opened for the 
admission of students in the fall of 1905 in the buildings of 

129 The total population of Florida In 1900 was only 528,542; and the 
assessed valuation of all her property was but $96,686,954. 

130 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. S384. 

121 For an account of this institution see the report of the state super- 
intendent for 1904-06, pp. 206-28; 1906-08, pp. 153-66; 1908-10, pp. 157-75; 
1910-12, pp. 155-72; 1912-14, pp. 282-96; 1914-16, pp. 321-47; 1916-18, pp. 
369-77; and the various catalogues of the institution since 1905. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 163 

the former university at Lake City. Here it remained for one 
year, while buildings were being erected for its accommodation 
at Gainesville. That year the general organization and work 
were practically the same as they were the preceding year in 
the former university, the principal changes being that a distinct 
normal school, which offered courses leading to the degree of 
bachelor of arts in pedogogy, was maintained; that satisfactory 
completion of the eleventh-grade work was required for ad- 
mission to the freshman class ; and that the agricultural ex- 
periment station was made a separate division, although mem- 
bers of its staff continued to give instruction to the students and 
the president of the university acted as its director. The fol- 
lowing summer the university was moved to its new plant, which 
at that time consisted of about five hundred acres of land"^ 
and two splendid buildings. ^^^ During the first session here 
the organization and work were again but slightly changed. The 
normal school was abolished, the courses in education being 
transferred to the university proper; the members of the ex- 
periment station staff were required to devote their full time to 
agricultural research; and a university extension bureau was 
inaugurated. For the next two years there were also no changes 
of importance, except the rapid development of the extension 
work. In a short time this work included the offering of cor- 
respondence courses in agriculture for the public-school teachers, 
the holding of farmers' institutes,^^* public lectures by various 
members of the faculty, and the supervision of the high schools 
by the professor of secondary education.^^^ But in 1909, when 
Dr. A. A. Murphree was elected president, steps were at once 
taken to reorganize the university, which at that time became 
known as the University of Florida.^^" By the next year its 
organization embraced the following eight divisions: (i) a 
graduate school, offering courses leading to the degrees of master 
of arts and master of science; (2) a college of arts and sciences, 

132 AH of this was given by the citizens of Gainesville. 

133 These were worth about one hundred thousand dollars, of which 
the citizens of Gainesville subscribed forty thousand. 

13* These were provided for by the legislature of 1907. 
las This chair was established in 1907, with the generous co-operation 
and support of the General Education Board of New York. 
136 See Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5926. 



164 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

offering courses leading to the degrees of bachelor of arts, 
bachelor of science, and bachelor of arts in education; (3) a 
college of agriculture, offering courses leading to the degree of 
bachelor of science in agriculture; (4) a college of engineering, 
with curriculums leading to the degrees of bachelor of science 
in civil engineering, bachelor of science in electrical engineering, 
and bachelor of science in mechanical engineering; (5) a college 
of law,'^®'^ with a curriculum leading to the degree of bachelor 
of laws; (6) a preparatory school, including courses for grad- 
uates of junior, or tenth-grade, high schools and short courses 
in agriculture and mechanical arts; (7) the agricultural experi- 
ment station ; and (8) a university extension bureau. Since then 
there have been other important changes. In 1912 the teacher- 
training activities of the university were reorganized and a sep- 
arate division known as the Teachers College and Normal School 
was established. In 191 3 the present academic requirement for 
admission to the freshman class went into effect, this require- 
ment being a satisfactory completion of the twelfth-grade work. 
That same year a summer school, intended primarily for teachers, 
but open to others also,^^® was established by act of the legis- 
lature.^^^ The following year the co-operative agricultural-ex- 
tension work^*** provided for by the Smith-Lever Act of Con- 
gress^*^ was inaugurated. In June, 1917, when the legislature 
of Florida accepted the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act, 
the university was designated as the institution for the training 
of white teachers of agriculture, trades, and industries,^*^ and 
since then this vocational teacher-training work has been defi- 
nitely organized. It is evident, therefore, that since 1905 the 
university has made great progress in regard to its general organ- 
ization and work. During this same time it has also gained much 
in its material aspects. Approximately one hundred acres have 

137 This college was established in 1909. 

138 This school has always been coeducational. 

1S9 por this act see Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6498. 

!*<> This work included practical instruction and demonstrations in 
agriculture and home economics in the various communities of the State, 
and was carried on by the university in co-operation with the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

5 41 For this act see U. S. Stat, at L., XXXVIII, 372. 

142 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. '7Z7^- 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 165 

been added to its domain; thirteen excellent buildings, worth 
about three hundred fifty thousand dollars, have been erected; 
and more adequate equipment and supplies have been provided. 
Its faculty and student body, too, have rapidly increased, the 
number of professors and instructors having increased from 
fifteen to sixty-five,^*^ and the student enrollment from one 
hundred thirty-six to six hundred sixty-four.^** Indeed, it has 
grown into a real university, and promises to go on to still 
greater efficiency. 

The other higher educational institutions for whites, the 
Florida Female College,"^ was opened in the fall of 1905 also, 
in the old buildings of the former Florida State College at Tal- 
lahassee.^*® From the beginning the highest ideals have been 
fostered, as is shown by the mottoes of the new college seal — 
Vires, Artes, Mores and Femina Per feet a. To realize these 
more fully there have been numerous attempts at improvement 
along all lines. During the first session the general organization 
was somewhat different from what it had been in the former 
college. It consisted of the following main divisions: a college 
of liberal arts and sciences, offering courses leading to the de- 
grees of bachelor of arts and bachelor of science; a school of 
industrial arts, with special emphasis on cooking and sewing; 
a school of fine arts, offering courses in music, both vocal and 
instrumental, drawing, painting, and expression ; and a school for 
teachers, which took the place of the abolished state normal at 
DeFuniak Springs. In 1906 the school of industrial arts was 
combined with the college and the school for teachers; and the 
school of fine arts was divided into three schools — a school of 
music, a school of art, and a school of expression. In 1909 some 

143 Xhis does not include the numerous student assistants. 

1** Including the summer school, the short courses for farmers, and the 
courses for the boys' clubs, the enrollment for 1919-20 was nearly thirteen 
hundred. 

1*5 In 1909 its name was changed to the Florida State College for 
Women (see Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. S924), 

i*s For an account of this institution see the report of the state su- 
perintendent for 1904-06, pp. 231-40; 1906-08, pp. 167-76; 1908-10, pp. 
176-86; 1910-12, pp. 173-92; 1912-14, pp. 297-304; 1914-16, pp. 349-63; 
1916-18, pp. 377-92; and the various catalogues of the institution since 
1905. 



166 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

extension work for the women and girls of the State was done 
by the director of the department of home economics. Two 
years later a regular extension division was established, the work 
of which, since 1914, has been conducted, for the most part, 
in co-operation with the University of Florida and the United 
States Department of Agriculture. In 1913 a summer school, de- 
signed for public-school teachers, but open to all students,"'^ was 
established by legislative action. ^*^ Three years later a graduate 
school and a department of business were inaugurated. In June, 
191 7, when the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act were accepted 
by the State, the college was designated as the institution to pre- 
pare white teachers of home-economics subjects. ^*^ To meet the 
demand for vocational home economics created by this Federal 
Act, there was organized the following year a school of home 
economics co-ordinate with the other schools of the college. Thus 
it is seen that since 1905 there has been a decided improvement 
in the matter of organization. Since then the plant, too, has 
been greatly improved. Six handsome brick buildings, modern 
in every respect, have been erected; excellent equipment and sup- 
plies have been procured ; the campus has been enlarged and im- 
proved until it is one of the most beautiful in this country ; and 
a college farm consisting of nearly two hundred acres has been 
purchased and placed under cultivation. Also the teaching staff 
and student body have become much larger, the number of 
teachers having increased from about twenty to forty-five,^^" 
and the number of students from two hundred four to six 
hundred sixty-two.^^^ And, as a result of these improve- 
ments, the standard of the college has been steadily raised. 
Since September, 1913, four years of standard high-school work, 
or its equivalent, have been required for admission to the fresh- 
man class. Since 1915 the college has been a member of the 
Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern 
States, an organization to which only colleges of first-class stand- 

!*''■ This school has always been coeducational. 
1*8 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6498. 
1*9 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7376. 

150 This does not include the numerous student assistant's and those 
engaged exclusively in home-demonstration work. 

151 Including the summer school, the enrollment for 1919-20 was over 
eleven hundred. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 167 

ing are admitted/^- and to which but few colleges for women be- 
long. Hence we see that it has become one of the very best 
colleges for women in the South ; and, like the university, it 
has thoroughly justified the wisdom of the people of Florida in 
its establishment. 

Besides the institutions of higher learning for whites, the State 
has maintained one for negroes.^^^ As already pointed out,^^'* 
this was established in 1887 as a state normal, and was opened 
at Tallahassee in the fall of that year. Unlike the other higher 
educational institutions of the State, it was not abolished in 1905, 
but was continued as a state institution for the training and 
instruction of colored teachers, it becoming officially known as 
the Colored Normal School. ^''^ By that time the institution had 
made considerable progress. However, it was not yet a college, 
but a good secondary school with industrial, agricultural, home- 
economics, and teacher-training features. Since then it has made 
a great advance. For example, the plant facilities have been 
enlarged and improved, the number of teachers and students 
has been increased, the older courses of instruction have been 
modified and enriched, and several new ones added. At present 
the institution has twenty-two buildings, all of which are fairly 
good and tolerably well-equipped, a splendid campus, and over 
two hundred acres of excellent farming land. It has a faculty 
of forty-two well-trained men and women, and an enrollment 
of nearly three hundred fifty students. Its instructional ac- 
tivities include eight years of work — four in the high-schooP^® 
and four in the collegiate department. The collegiate work em- 
braces six groups of studies, each of which leads to a certificate 
or a bachelor's degree. These courses are in the liberal arts 
and sciences, vocal and instrumental music, teacher-training, 

152 See Bull, of U. S. Bu. of Ed., 1917, No. 17, pp. 65-66. 

153 For an account of this institution see the report of the state super- 
intendent for 1904-06, pp. 254-57 ; 1906-08, pp. 191-93 ; 1908-10, pp. 202- 
06; 1910-12, pp. 193-95; 1912-14, pp. 312-16; 1914-16, pp. 395-405; 1916- 
t8, pp. 400-404 ; and the various catalogues of the institution since 1905. 

IS* See page 99. 

155 In 1909 its name was changed to the Florida Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College for Negroes (see Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5925). 

156 The work in this department is practically the same as that of the 
standard four-year high schools of the State. 



168 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

agriculture, mechanic arts, and home economics. During the past 
few years each phase of this work has gradually been enlarged 
and perfected. However, instruction in agriculture and home 
economics has been a special feature. In addition to the reg- 
ular courses in these subjects, extension work provided for by 
the Smith-Lever Act has been inaugurated, and, as President 
Young says,^^^ has " developed most remarkably." The train- 
ing of teachers, too, particularly for vocational subjects, has been 
stressed. Vocational teacher-training work provided for by 
legislative and congressional appropriations, under the Smith- 
Hughes Act, has been undertaken. Special courses in agricultural, 
home-economics, trade, and industrial subjects have been organ- 
ized, and very satisfactory work is being given.^^^ Also a two- 
months' summer school for active and prospective teachers, pro- 
vided for by the legislature of 1913,^^^ has been maintained. 
Thus it is seen that this institution has made rapid progress. 
For the last few years it has been, and still is, rendering an 
invaluable service to the State ; and, if the succeeding legislatures 
will be a little more generous in their appropriations, it is a 
safe prediction that it will render a still greater service. 

Summary 

During the last two decades the movement for vocational ed- 
ucation in Florida has made considerable progress. Courses of 
instruction in commercial, industrial, home-economics, and ag- 
ricultural subjects have been introduced in quite a number of 
the public elementary and high schools, and some excellent re- 
sults accomplished. A regular department in one or more of 
these fields has been established in several of the high schools. 
Moreover, a number of the counties have introduced home- and 
farm-demonstration work, which is becoming more closely affili- 
ated with the work of the schools every year. 

During this time there has also been some advance in regard 
to special types of schools. The school for the blind and deaf- 
mutes, established in 1883, has been greatly improved. A reform 

ifs^ See Bulletin of the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College, 
Series XII, No. 9 (September, 1919), P- 4- 

158 See An. Rep. of Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1919, Vol. I, pp. 1 17-19. 
ii's See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6498. 



THE PUBLIOSCHOOL AWAKENING 169 

school for boys and one for girls, opened in 1900 and 191 7, 
respectively, have developed into splendid reclamation schools for 
juvenile delinquents. Furthermore, legislative provision has been 
made for local kindergartens and some good schools of this 
type have been established. 

Since 1892 there has been notable advancement in higher 
education. Prior to that very little had been done in this field. 
But from 1892 to 1905 the five so-called higher educational in- 
stitutions already established were considerably improved, and 
two others provided. In 1905 a law was passed which reduced 
the number of institutions to three — two for whites and one 
for negroes. Since then these have developed into real higher 
educational institutions, and, indeed, are rendering a great serv- 
ice to the State. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AW AKENING-Continued 

II. The Environment and Equipment of the Schools 

We have just noticed the advancement made with respect to 
the system of instruction as one of the chief signs of the develop- 
ment of pubHc education during the present period (1892-1921). 
Another sign of this development is the advance that has been 
made with respect to the environment and equipment of the 
schools. Though there had been considerable progress along 
this line, as we have seen/ during State Superintendent Rus- 
sell's administration, there was, at the close of his administration 
(1892), still many deficiencies and needs for improvement. In 
this section we shall endeavor to show the progress that has 
been made since then in the way of removing the deficiencies 
and providing for the needs. In doing so we shall notice the 
following sub-heads: (i) buildings, grounds, and equipment, 
(2) health and sanitary conditions, and (3) textbooks used. 

Buildings, Grounds, and Equipment. — Throughout the present 
period there has been a gradual awakening, especially on the 
part of school officers, to the importance of good, attractive, 
and well-equipped school buildings and grounds for all the 
children of the State. This is evident from numerous state- 
ments of state and county school officials. For example, in 1894 
State Superintendent Sheats said that the policy of his admin- 
istration had been " better schools, and fewer, if necessary, to 
produce that result." - In 1897 Superintendent John C. Compton, 
of Lake County, speaking at the convention of county super- 
intendents, made this statement, which met the approval of the 
other members of the convention : " 

^ Vide pages 92-94. 

2 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 71. 

3 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, p. 387. 

170 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 171 

"... To make a school the most efifective it should have a good, 
comfortable house, well lighted, ventilated and heated, and furnished 
with comfortable seats and desks. Our children should be as well pro- 
vided for as we ourselves are. ..." 

Five years later (1902) Superintendent Sheats reported: * 

" The spirit of school-house building is rapidly developing in the State, 
brick and neat frame buildings taking the place of improperly constructed 
and unsightly old structures. ..." 

Eight years after this (1910) quite a number of county super- 
intendents of public instruction stated that there was a growing 
disposition on the part of the people to improve the school prop- 
erty,^ the following statement by Superintendent T. W. Price, 
of Levy County, being quite typical of the others : *' 

" For the past two years our people have been very active in im- 
proving their school buildings and grounds and making them more at- 
tractive and comfortable. ..." 

And three years ago (1918) Superintendent Sheats stated that 
since 1898 there had been a regular and continuous growth of 
interest along all material lines.'^ 

As a result of this awakening, and of new and improved 
legislation,® there has been a steady and persistent progress in 

4 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, p. 38. 

5 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1908-10, pp. zi, 38, 41, 43, 46, 
49. 56, 59, ()Z, 66, ^2, 75, 81, 87, 92, 94, 102, 104, 106, no, 116, 118, 130, 134, 
135, and 154. 

6 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1908-10, p. 102. 

"' See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 17 and 31. 

s There have been three legislative steps which have helped very much 
in the way of providing better school buildings and grounds. The first 
was taken in 1899, when an act was passed authorizing the board of pub- 
lic instruction of any county to contract debts for the purchase of real 
estate to be used for educational purposes (see Laws of Florida, 1899, 
Chap. 4682). The second was taken four years later, when the legislature 
passed a resolution proposing an amendment to the constitution fixing 
the maximum rate of millage to be assessed in each county for school 
purposes at seven instead of five mills. This amendment was ratified by 
the people at the general election in November, 1904 (see Bien. Rep. of 
Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, p. 8). And the third step was taken in 1917, 
when the legislature passed a resolution proposing that the constitution 
be amended so as to fix the maximum rate of millage at ten mills. This 
amendment was adopted at the general election in November of the fol- 



172 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

providing, improving, and equipping public-school buildings and 
grounds. The table on the following page will give us some 
idea of the progress made. 

Hygienic Conditions. — There has been an awakening to the 
importance of the health of the school children, too. This may- 
be seen by comparing the older reports of the various school 
officers with the more recent ones, the later reports having more 
to say with regard to the necessity of good health conditions. 

There have also been some important legislative requirements 
as to the health of the school children, the following being the 
principal ones : ( i ) that the teachers should offer instruction 
in hygiene to all children in the first six grades of the public 
schools;^ (2) that they should teach the evils of alcoholic stim- 
ulants and narcotics to all public-school children between the ages 
of six and twelve years ;^" (3) that all school buildings should 
be provided with sanitary toilets ; ^^ and (4) that medical in- 
spection under the supervision of the state board of health 
should be provided for all pupils attending the public schools, 
the pupils being examined as to their physical condition at least 
once during each school year.^^ 

In consequence of these legislative requirements, and of recent 
interest in educational hygiene, there seems to have been con- 
siderable advancement in the school health movement. This 
appears from the fact that the reports of the school officers 
during the early part of the period had but little or nothing to 
say concerning hygienic conditions of the schools, whereas most 
of the recent reports call attention to many evidences of progress 
along this line.^^ They show, for example, that for the most 

lowing year (see Laws Relating to Education Enacted by the Florida 
Legislature of 1917 and 1919, compiled by State Superintendent W. N. 
Sheats, p. i). 

^ See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5206, Sees. 4 and 5. 

10 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6832; supra, 120; and Bien. Rep. 
of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 78. 

11 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6836. 
^2 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6829. 

^3 See, especially, the reports of the superintendents of public instruc- 
tion of Alachua, Bradford, Clay, Lafayette, Leon, Monroe, St. Johns, 
Santa Rosa, Volusia, and Walton counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. 
Ins., 1912-14, pp. 491, 498, 507, 563, 572, 587, 609, 616, 632, 646; the re- 
ports of the superintendents of Broward, Calhoun, Dade, DeSoto, Duval, 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



173 





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174 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

part the school buildings are better lighted, heated, and ventilated ; 
that they are provided with more comfortable desks, better 
water supply, and more sanitary toilets; and that more attention 
is given to the imparting of knowledge of hygiene, to the pro- 
viding of opportunities for play, and to the preventing of and 
caring for the physical defects of the children.^^ 

However, it should be pointed out that there are still many needs 
for improvement, the most common defects being the lack of prop- 
er lighting and suitable ventilation and toilet facilities. This is 
especially true in the small, isolated, rural schools. ^'^ Some of 
these schools have too limited amount of glass surface to admit 
sufficient light ; quite a number have windows facing the children ; 
and many of them have windows that are either poorly shaded, or 
else not shaded at all, the children being exposed to the direct rays 
of the sun, even in the hottest weather. Some of them have 
windows that are without weights or cords, and therefore no 
way of giving natural ventilation to the schoolrooms ; quite a 
number have toilets or privies that are improperly constructed 
and poorly kept ; and some are " unsuitable from almost every 
standpoint." But in most cases the people are becoming dis- 

Gadsden, Hamilton, Holmes, Jefferson, Lake, Liberty, Madison, and 
Osceola counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 558, 
560, 580, 595, 612, 629, 633, 644, 651, 659, 672, 67s, 696; the report's of the 
superintendents of Franklin, Hernando, Hillsborough, Jackson, Marion, 
Okaloosa, Okeechobee, Orange, Pasco, Pinellas, and Putnam counties, 
in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 608, 615, 620, 626, 657, 
665, 668, 670, 687, 6go, 709; and, also, the reports of the two state rural 
school inspectors, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 347- 
58 and 359-6/- 

15 One county — St. Johns— maintains a dental clinic and provides free 
dental service to all public-school pupils in the county. This is made 
possible by the generosity of Mr. John T. Dismukes, of St. Augustine, 
who pays the dentist's salary (see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 
1912-14, p. 609; Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 711; and 
Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 713). 

1^ For an account' of these defects see the reports of the state rural 
school inspectors for the calendar years 1917 and 1918, in the Bien. Rep. 
of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 347-67. 

Three years ago I had the opportunity of visiting quite a number of 
the public schools in nearly every county of the State. I found, a^ 
stated in these reports, that as a rule the schools of the towns and cities 
had adequate provision for guarding the health of the children, while 
many of the country schools were quite deficient in this respect. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 175 

satisfied with these poor conditions, and are spending consider- 
able time, thought, and money in removing them. Hence, it 
is quite probable that practically all the schools of the State will 
soon have adequate provision for guarding the health of the pupils. 

Textbooks Used. — And, in the third place, there has been a 
great advance in the matter of textbooks. This has been due 
very largely to new and better legislation, the first advanced 
legislative step being in June, 1899, when a law was enacted 
providing for county uniformity of textbooks in the public ele- 
mentary schools. ^^ This law required that the books constituting 
such uniform system in each county should be selected by the 
county board of public instruction, after consultation with the 
county superintendent and at least three leading teachers of the 
county ; that the adoption of such system should be gradual, the 
entire adoption, however, consummated by July i, 1901 ; that 
the adoption should last for at least five years; that the county 
superintendent should see that the adoped books were used by 
the pupils ; and that the teachers should use no other books in 
teaching.^^ 

As has been seen,^'' a law similar to this was enacted in March, 
1883 ; but as it was omitted in the codification of the Revised 
Statutes, in 1892, the State ceased to have any law relative to 
the adoption of textbooks. Consequently, the county boards 
began to break away from the plan of making uniform adoptions, 
thereby reviving the old evils of poor quality, frequent changes, 
and multiplicity of textbooks. By 1898 it had become quite 
evident that another law upon this subject was needed.^*' No 
one recognized this more keenly than State Superintendent Sheats. 
In his report of July i, 1898,^^ he recommended the enactment 
of a law requiring county uniformity. As pointed out in the 
preceding paragraph, such a law was enacted the following year. 

This law was put into operation at once in all the counties of 
the State, and remained so until 1911, when it was displaced 

17 See Laws of Florida, 1899, Chap. 4680. 

18 None of these requirements, however, could impair any entire or 
partial adoption already in existence in any county of the State (see 
section three of the law). 

19 See page 72. 

-" See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1896-98, pp. 231 and 465. 
21 See pages 36-37- 



176 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

by a more advanced one. From the very first it gave satisfaction 
to nearly all the school officers and teachers and to a large 
majority of the patrons.-^ The only adverse criticism of it 
that I have been able to find was that it should have made the 
State, instead of the county, the unit for the adoption of text- 
books.^^ 

On May 23, 191 1, an act was passed providing for state adop- 
tion.^* This act constituted the board of commissioners of state 
institutions^^ a state textbook commission; and also created a 
subcommission of not less than nine members, — four county 
superintendents and five teachers — all of whom were to be ap- 
pointed by the governor for a term of four years. The com- 
mission was authorized and directed to select and adopt a uni- 
form series of textbooks for use in the public elementary schools, 
county boards of education still having the power to adopt high- 
school textbooks; but all books submitted were to be referred 
to the subcommission, which was directed to consider their merits 
without regard to price, and report on the same to the com- 
mission, indicating first choice, second choice, and so on, for 
each branch. The commission was further authorized and di- 
rected to award contracts for furnishing the books to be used 
in the public schools, no contract to be changed without the 
consent of four members of the commission and the publisher 
to whom it was awarded. All adoptions were to be for a period 
of five years, and after the first adoption not more than ten 
per cent of the books could be changed in any one year. The 
publishers were to maintain in each county of the State, if the 
commission thought advisable, and so demanded, " not less than 
one nor more than twelve agencies for the distribution of the 
books." The state superintendent was required to issue to the 
county superintendents a circular letter giving the list of books 

22 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1898-1900, p. 45. 

23 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902^54, pp. 254, 264, 267, 270, 
272, 297, 353, 359; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, pp. 73 
and 92. 

24 See Laws of Florida, 191 1, Chap. 6178. 

25 This board consists of the governor and the administrative officers 
of the executive department, and has supervision of all matters connected 
with the state institutions in such manner as may be prescribed by law 
(see Constitution of Florida, Art. IV, Sec. 17). 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING l77 

adopted, prices, location of agencies, method of distribution, and 
such other information as he deemed necessary. The books 
adopted were to be used to the exclusion of all others. Penalties 
were provided for the use of any book not upon the adopted 
list, for the failure of publishers to execute contracts within 
thirty days after being awarded them, for their failure to per- 
form them faithfully, and for overcharges on the part of both 
publishers and dealers. 

This act was soon put into effect in quite a number of the 
counties, and, like the foregoing act, gave almost universal sat- 
isfaction.2® Superintendent Charles H. Gray, of Gadsden Coun- 
ty, reported : ^'^ . 

" The uniform textbook law has proven a blessing, in that it has 
provided us with some excellent texts we were not then using, and in 
lowering the price generally. ..." 

Superintendent Marshall Moore, of Hillsborough County, re- 
ported : ^^ 

" The uniform textbook law is working admirably well. ..." 

Superintendent H. H. Isler, of Leon County, stated : ^® 

" The uniform textbook law is just what we need, so as to be able to 
classify our schools in Florida. ..." 

And Superintendent W. T. Home, of Washington County, 
stated : =>« 

" The uniform textbook law is in full operation in this county. We 
are very much pleased with the results it brings. ..." 

26 See the reports of the superintendents of public instruction of Baker, 
Bradford, Dade, DeSoto, Gadsden, Hamilton, Hillsborough, Holmes, Lake, 
Madison, Palm Beach, and Polk counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. 
Ins., 1912-14, pp. 496, 498, 514. 521, 537, 540, 549, 555, 565, 578, 5Q5, 606; 
and the reports of the superintendents of Brevard, Broward, Calhoun, 
Clay, Columbia, Duval, Lafayette, Lee, Leon, Liberty, Osceola, Suwan- 
nee, Volusia, Wakulla, and Washington counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. 
of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 550, 558, 562, 571, 576, 612, 655, 665, 669, 672, 
698, 745, 776, 786, 795- 

27 See Bien. Rep. of Supt'. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 537. 
2s Ibid., p. 549. 

29 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 669. 
^'^Ibid., p. 795. 



178 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

The chief objections to this act were (i) that it did not go 
far enough, in that it failed to provide for state uniformity in 
the high schools ; ^^ and (2) that it did not make adequate pro- 
vision for distributing the books, thereby causing some incon- 
venience in a number of places.^^ To meet these and other 
objections the act was amended in 1917,^^ and displaced by an 
entirely new one this year (1921). In 1917 the commission 
was authorized and directed to select and adopt a uniform 
series of textbooks for the high schools, also ; and each of the 
publishers, or the several publishers combined, was required to 
establish and maintain a central book depository at some con- 
venient point in the State, to be designated by the commission, 
and, also, one or more agencies in each county for the distribu- 
tion of the books. A few other changes were made, the principal 
one being with reference to the subcommission. After that the 
subcommission was to be appointed by the governor, " upon the 
nomination of the state superintendent of public instruction" ; 
and was to consist of ten members, — " two county superin- 
tendents, two primary teachers, two grade teachers, two high- 
school teachers, and two teachers selected with reference to their 
experience in and knowledge of vocational subjects." 

As just stated, a new uniform textbook law was enacted by the 
last legislature.^* Though this law embodies the main features 
of the old one, it differs from it in several particulars. The 
three chief differences are (i) that the subcommission shall 
be composed of " seven prominent educators actually engaged in 
school work in the State " ; (2) that all adoptions shall be for 
a period of eight years; and (3) that in any year when books 
must be adopted the adoptions shall be fully completed on or 
before March i. With these changes the uniform textbook law 
of Florida compares favorably with that of any other state. 

Another advanced legislative step was taken in June, 1911,^^ 
when the legislature passed " an act to provide for furnishing 
school textbooks free to certain children." By the provisions 

31 Ibid., pp. 546, 550, 553, 571, 629, 656, 665. 

32 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 676. 
• 33 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7374. 

3* See Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8500, 
35 See Laws of Florida, 191 1, Chap. 6163. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 179 

of this act the county boards of public instruction are required 
to furnish textbooks free to all indigent children not over fifteen 
years of age; however, when the children reside in a special-tax 
district the cost of the books is to be " charged against and paid 
for out of the funds to the credit of such district." 

It seems that this act has always given general satisfaction, 
for I have been unable to find any adverse criticism of the same. 
It has certainly proven a great blessing, in that many poor chil- 
dren have been supplied with textbooks who otherwise would 
have been without them. 

Thus it is seen that there has been much improvement in the 
way of textbooks, those of today being better in quality, more 
sufficient in quantity, more conducive to proper classification of 
pupils, and at the same time less expensive than ever before. 
If this rate of progress is continued, the textbook conditions in 
Florida will rank with the best in the near future. 

Ill, The Teaching Body 

Still another indication of the development of public education 
since 1892 is the advance that has been made in regard to the 
teaching body. In treating this topic we shall consider the 
following sub-topics: (i) the number, qualification, and experi- 
ence of teachers; (2) the preparation of prospective teachers; 
(3) the examination and certification of teachers; (4) the train- 
ing of teachers in service; and (5) the salaries of teachers. 

The Number, Qualification, and Experience of Teachers. — 
There has been a notable increase in the number of teachers 
employed and in their qualification and experience. This is 
shown by the table on the next page, which has been prepared 
from figures taken from various reports of the state superin- 
tendent of schools. 

The Preparation of Teachers. — As is seen in the following 
table, there has been a persistent increase, not only in the number 
of those engaged to teach, but also in their fitness for service. 
The importance of this has ever been recognized, especially by 
the school authorities. Consequently, better provision has been 
made for the preparation of those intending to teach. Additional 
agencies for the preparation of prospective teachers have been 



180 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



TABLE XVIII 
Statistics Relating to the Teaching Body (1897-1920) 



Number of teachers employed . 

White teachers 

Negro teachers 

Certificates held by teachers: 
Both races 

White , 

Negro 

Total temporary . . . . 

White 

Negro 

Total third-grade 

White 

Negro 

Total second-grade 

White 

Negro 

Total first-grade 

White 

Negro 

Total life first-grade 

White 

Negro 

Total primary 

White 

Negro 

Total life primary 

White 

Negro 

Total special 

White 

Negro 

Total state 

White 

Negro 

Total graduate state 

White 

Negro 

Total life state 

White 

Negro 

Graduates of normal schools. . 

White 

Negro 

Average experience in months . 

White males 

White females 

Negro males 

Negro females 



1897- 



2,792 

2,108 

684 

2,835'^ 
2,151 
684 
21 
19 
2 
820 
497 
323 
1,460 
1,140 
320 
512 
471 
41 
. . . J 
. . . J 
' ' ' ' f 



317 
258 
59 
39 
43 
33 
58 
38 



1902- 
03 



2,831 

2,175 

656 

2,831^ 



708 
410 
298 
1,281 
994 
287 
693 
640 
53 



358 
274 
84 
41 
50 
32 
71 
43 



1907- 
08 



3.597 
2,716 



3.597' 
2,716 



400 

1.396 

1,014 

382 

795 

736 

59 



614 
448 
168 
42 
59 
34 
89 
39 



1912- 
13 



4.599 
3. 509 
1,090 

4.497' 

3.464 

1.033 

357 

277 

80 

916 

529 

387 

1.834 

1.374 

460 

1,061 

973 

88 

76 

59 

17 

76 

76 

o 

41 

41 



66 

66 

o 



52 

51 

I 

964 

780 

184 

41 

53 

36 

103 

39 



1917- 



6,350 
5.062 
1,288 

6,267' 

5.049 

1,218 

147 

125 

22 

1.447 

818 

629 

2.371 
1,886 

485 

1,299 

1,240 

59 

117 

100 

17 

118 

118 

o 

105 

105 

o 

323 

319 

4 

173 

172 

I 

84 

84 



83 

82 

I 

778 

623 

155 
40 
42 
34 
90 
47 



1919- 
20 



6,821 

5.554 
1,267 

6,293'^ 

5,096 

1. 197 

518 

397 

121 

1,026 

645 

381 

2.387 

1. 817 

570 

1. 138 

1,067 

71 

171 

143 

28 

132 

129 

3 

112 
no 

2 

325 
312 

13 
180 
176 

4 
170 
169 

I 
134 
131 

3 
919 

797 

122 

46 

62 

39 

no 

51 



° As is evident, some teachers held more than one kind of certificate. 

^ This includes 149 certificates of other kinds than the first, second, and third 
grades. There is no record, however, as to how many of these were held by each 
race. 

" This includes 520 certificates of other kinds than" the first, second, and third 
grades. Of this number 400 were held by whites, and 40 by negroes. 

^ This is less than the number of teachers employed. Hence it seems that some 
of the teachers were not certificated. 

" No data. 

■^ Not provided for at that date. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 181 

provided, and existing ones improved. The first legislation in 
this direction was the act of A^ay, 1901, which provided for the 
establishment and maintenance of one scholarship in the state 
normal at DeFuniak Springs for each county during the years 
1901-02 and 1902-03, the beneficiaries to be given not only free 
tuition but also $12.50 a month for expenses.^'' The scholar- 
ships were to be assigned by the county superintenden,ts and 
school boards of the respective counties, and only to young men 
and young women between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five 
who manifested teaching qualities and signed a pledge to teach 
for at least four years in the State or to return every dollar 
received. Two years later the sum of $9,000 was appropriated 
for the continuation of these scholarships during the years 
1903-04 and 1904-05.^^ The reports of this school show that 
the results of these appropriations were, indeed, very gratify- 
ing.^^ During the quinquennium 1900-1905 the enrollment in 
the teacher-training courses increased over forty per cent. In 
1900-1901, it was 99; in 1901-02, 119; in 1902-03, 133; in 
1903-04, 132; and in 1904-05, 140.^'' Nearly all this increase 
was due to scholarship students, who for the most part possessed 
splendid qualities for teaching. Speaking along this line, Prin- 
cipal H. E. Bennett, in his report of 1904, said : "" 

"... it is believed that the present scholarship students are of such 
character that they will fulfill the highest expectations." 

The legislature of 1901 also passed an act providing for an 
appropriation of $10,000 to assist in maintaining a normal and 
an industrial department in the St. Petersburg Normalj and 
Industrial School during the biennium 1901-03, for the creation 
of free scholarships in all the departments of the school, each 
member of the state legislature being entitled to select, under 

36 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4997. 

37 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 196. 

^^ Ibid., pp. 193-200; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, 
pp. 185-91. 

39 For these figures see the biennial reports of the state superintendent 
of public instruction for 1898-1900, 1900-1902, and 1902-04, and the an- 
nual reports of the United States commissioner of education for the 
years 1900-1905, inclusive. 

*o See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 197. 



182 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

regulations and restrictions to be prepared by the state board of 
education, one beneficiary for each department, and for the 
furnishing of free tuition in the normal department to all stu- 
dents of the State preparing to teach.*^ Two years later the 
legislature made an appropriation for the carrying on of this 
same work during the biennium 1903-05.^^ As in the case of 
the state normal at DeFuniak Springs, the reports of this school 
show that the results of these appropriations also were very 
gratifying.*^ Principal Jos. E. Guisinger, in his report of 1904, 
said : ** 

" Our normal school building is one of the best equipped school 
buildings in the State. ..." 

And in another part of his report he said : *^ 

" Success has crowned the efforts of those who have worked so faith- 
fully while endeavoring to build up a splendid educational institution at 
St. Petersburg during the past four years. The small sums of money 
which the legislatures of 1901 and 1903 appropriated to assist in main- 
taining this school have been used to the greatest possible advantage by 
the state board of education, and the result is a splendid school. ..." 

Another act of educational importance was the Buckman Act 
of 1905, which, as we have seen,*^ merged the six state higher 
educational institutions for white students into the Florida Fe- 
male College and the University of the State of Florida, thereby 
reducing the number of state institutions for higher education 
from seven to three — two for whites and one for negroes. The 
remarkable growth of these institutions since then has demon- 
strated the wisdom of the legislature in effecting this merger. 
There has been quite an increase in the enrollment, and a great 
increase in the quality and quantity of the work. This has 
been particularly true in the departments of education. During 
the four years just preceding the consolidation the average 
annual enrollment in the teacher-training courses of all the 

41 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4998. 
*2 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 204. 
*^ Ibid., pp. 200-204; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, 
PP- 195-99- 

*4 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 202. 
*^ Ibid., p. 204. 
*® Supra, p. 162. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 183, 

schools, including the one for negroes, was but a little over 
three hundred, whereas the average annual enrollment for the 
last four years has been over four hundred. But the increase 
relating to standards has been even more marked, the work 
offered having become so enlarged and enriched that it com- 
pares favorably with that of the best schools of the country. 

But one of the most recent, and perhaps the most significant, 
pieces of legislation looking to the preparation of prospective 
teachers was the act of 191 5 providing for county teacher-train- 
ing departments.*'^ This act directed the state board of educa- 
tion to establish a teacher-training department in one high school 
in each county, but this department was to have at least 10 stu- 
dents in it. The board was directed also to appropriate $500 
to each department, provided the county board appropriated 
an equal amount or more to secure a teacher to devote his en- 
tire time to the department. It also appropriated $25,000 for 
the maintenance of these departments for each of the two years 
beginning July i, 191 5. 

On August 28, 1915, the state board of education, in com- 
pliance with section one of this act, prescribed the following 
rules and regulations for the establishment and government of 
these departments : *^ 

" Regulation i. The teacher of the teacher^training department shall 
not be the principal of the high school, no'r shall the five hundred dol- 
lars ($500) appropriated by the State for such department be used in 
supplementing the salary of a principal, though the principal, or other 
capable teachers, may hear one or more recitations in said department. 

" Regulation 2. No person shall be selected as teacher of any teacher- 
training department who does not hold a valid Florida teacher's certificate, 
and the teacher of such department in every county high school may be 
nominated by the county board of public instruction, but must be approved 
by the state board of education before any appropriation will be made by 
said state board for the salary of the teacher of any such department. 

" Regulation 3. In the selection of teachers for such training depart- 
ments preference shall be given to holders of Florida state certificates, or 
to regular graduates of standard normal schools who are legally certifi- 
cated in this State, presenting satisfactory evidence of having had success- 
ful experience as teachers; provided, that if it be necessary to employ 
teachers for such departments with less qualifications than above pre- 

^'' See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6830. 

48 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 73-74. 



184 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

scribed, every such teacher shall be the holder of a valid first-grade 
Florida certificate and a special certificate on psychology, history of edu- 
cation, and the theory and practice of teaching, the latter also taken in 
Florida. 

" Regulation 4. Any county seeking to establish a teacher-training 
department in any school within such county must appropriate from 
county school funds not less than five hundred dollars ($500) for the 
salary of the teacher of such department, which, with the appropriation 
by the state board of education, fixes the salary of such teacher at not 
less than one thousand dollars ($1,000) for eight months' service; pro- 
vided, that any county board of public instruction shall not be prohibited 
from making the salary greater than one thousand dollars; provided 
further, that more than one teacher may be employed for such department 
and be paid from county or district fund, one or both. 

"Regulation 5. The salary of the teacher of every teacher-training 
department shall be paid for the first four months from county funds. 
The five hundred dollars appropriated from state funds shall be trans- 
mitted to the county board of pubHc instruction for the payment of the 
salary of the teacher for the last four months of the school; provided, 
that monthly reports of such department shall be made as required, on 
blanks furnished, to the state board of education and must show that 
the said department has met all the requirements of the law and of 
these regulations. 

" Regulation 6. Any school, before receiving state appropriation in 
aid of the establishment of a teacher-training department, must present 
evidence that not less than ten (10) teacher-pupils will regularly attend 
such department. Each of such pupils must be sixteen years of age, or 
over, and must have regularly and creditably completed the eighth 
grade of a school with a standard not lower than the average eighth- 
grade course of study of Florida, or must have taught a public school for 
not less than six months. 

" Regulation 7. The number of daily recitations by the teacher in a 
teacher-training department shall not be less than six, nor exceed eight, 
per day, and all such recitations shall be forty-five (45) minute periods; 
provided, that some recitations may be shorter than forty-five minutes 
and others as long as sixty (60) minutes, but the average shall not be 
less than forty-five (45) minute periods. One recitation daily of not 
less than forty-five (45) minutes shall be devoted to pedagogy and 
methods of teaching. 

" Regulation 8. The term of every school establishing a teacher- 
training department shall not be less than one hundred and sixty (160) 
days, or eight (8) months, of actual teaching in such department. 

" Regulation 9. A teacher-training department shall not be established 
in any school unless that school is recognized as a high school by the 
state board of education, and meets the requirements of a high school as 
prescribed by the regulations of said state board of education; provided, 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



185 



that any county not having had a sufficient number of high-school pupils 
in any one school as to have hitherto obtained recognition as a high 
school, the state board of education may, hovi^ever, establish a teacher- 
training department in such county with no present recognized high 
school, but which, by the close of the school year 1916-1917 shall have 
such recognized high school. 

" Regulation 10. All teacher-training departments shall be conducted 
in accordance with an advisory course of study submitted by the state 
board of education, until such course shall be perfected and made man- 
datory in all teacher-training departments of the State." 



TABLE XIX 
Teacher-training Departments for the Year 1915-16 ^^ 



County 



Location 



Enrollment 



Average 
attendance 



Alachua. . . . 

DeSoto 

Holmes . . . . 

Pasco 

Pinellas . . . . 

Taylor 

Walton . . . . 
Washington 

Total . . . . 



Gainesville 

Arcadia 

Bonifay 

Dade City 

St. Petersburg. . . . 

Perry 

DeFuniak Springs . 
Chipley 



1.3 
72 
46 
89 
19 
35 
49 
56 



28 
21 
36 
16 



30 



379 



194 



TABLE XX 
Teacher-training Departments for the Year 1916-17 ^o 



County 



DeSoto 

Duval 

Hamilton. . . 
Holmes . . . . 
Jackson. . . . 
Monroe . . . . 
Pinellas . . . . 

Polk 

Santa Rosa. 

Taylor 

Volusia. . . . 

Walton 

Washington, 

Total 



Location 



Arcadia 

Jacksonville 

Jasper 

Bonifay 

Marianna 

Key West 

St. Petersburg. . . . 

Bartow 

Milton 

Perry 

Daytona 

DeFuniak Springs 
Chipley 



Enrollment 



24 
23 
26 
30 
21 
17 
17 
22 
28 
28 

19 

27 
28 



310 



Average 
attendance 



19 
21 

20 

ID 
14 
12 
12 
15 
14 
16 
17 
17 
12 



199 



49 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 75. 

50 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 50. 



186 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

The two foregoing tables show the counties which availed 
themselves of the benefits of the act in 1915-16 and 1916-17. 

As is seen, only eight counties qualified to receive the state 
appropriation in 1915-16, which was somewhat disappointing to 
the state board of education. There was an increase in 1916-17, 
but still the number was not as large as was expected. Several 
of the counties claimed that they did not have sufficient funds 
to appropriate $500 for a teacher-training department, while 
others claimed that they could not secure such teachers as were 
required by the state board of education. There was probably 
some truth to the latter claim, for Superintendent Sheats says 
that " the state department was given considerable trouble in 
getting all those who did teach in these departments to qualify 
with such certificates as the regulations of the state board of 
education demanded." ^^ 

As most of the state appropriation made in 191 5 for the 
purpose of helping to maintain county teacher-training depart- 
ments for the years 1915-16 and 1916-17 had not been used, 
the legislature of 1917 passed an act making it a continuing 
appropriation.^^ Table XXI, on the next page, gives the counties 
which availed themselves of the benefits of this act in 191 7-18. 

As the following table shows, the number of counties that 
qualified to receive the appropriation in 1917-18 was one less 
than in 1916-17, the number being twelve.^^ However, the 
average attendance of the departments was considerably larger 
than it was in either of the preceding years, it being 194 in 
1915-16, 199 in 1916-17, and 235 in 1917-18. 

As is shown in the next two tables, the number of counties 
qualifying to receive state aid in 1918-19 and 1919-20 was less 
than in any of the three previous years, the number for the 
former year being only seven, and for the latter only six. This 
decrease was probably due, to some extent, to the lack of teachers, 
for in 1918 Superintendent Sheats said that the school authorities 
were still having difficulty in securing duly prepared teachers for 
the departments.^* But it was due mostly to the unwillingness 
of the county boards of education to match dollars with the 

51 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 74. 

22 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7371. 

S3 There were thirteen, but one failed to complete the term. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



187 



TABLE XXI 
Teacher-training Departments for the Year 1917-18 s* 



County 



Location 



Enrollment 



Average 
attendance 



DeSoto 

Duval 

Franklin. . . , 
Hamilton. . . . 
Hillsborough 
Manatee . . . . 

Monroe 

Polk 

Santa Rosa. . 

Taylor 

Volusia 

Washington. 

Total 



Arcadia 

Jacksonville. 
Apalachicola 

Jasper 

Tampa 

Bradentown. 
Key West . . 

Bartow 

Milton 

Perry 

Daytona. . . . 
Chipley. . . . 



32 
30 
17 
23 
57 
•27 
14 
20 
27 
24 
26 



29 
26 
13 

15 
44 



IS 
14 



24 



31S 



235 



State in support of the departments.^^ However, the figures of 
these five tables (XIX -XXIII), while not as large as was 
anticipated, prove the value of the law providing for teacher- 
training departments in duly approved high schools. If the 
county school authorities will avail themselves of the benefits 
of this law, they will have one of the very best agencies for 
the preparation of teachers for their elementary schools. 



TABLE XXII 

Teacher- training Departments for the Year 1918-19 ' 



County 



DeSoto 

Duval 

Escambia 

Hamilton. . . . 
Hillsborough 

Polk 

Washington. 

Total 



Location 



Arcadia . . . . 
Jacksonville 
Pensacola. . . 

Jasper , 

Tampa . . . . , 
Bartow. . . . , 
Chipley . 



Enrollment 



30 
33 
14 
25 
52 



Average 
attendance 



25 

27 
II 
18 
41 
10 
II 



143 



54 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 51. 

55 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 42. 

56 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 44. 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



TABLE XXIII 
Teacher-training Departments for the Year 1919-20 ^^ 



County 



DeSoto 

Duval 

Hamilton. . . . 
Hillsborough, 
Madison . . . . 
Polk 

Total 



Location 



Arcadia . . . . 
Jacksonville 

Jasper 

Tampa 

Madison. . . . 
Bartow 



Enrollment 



30 
34 
23 
48 
133 
18 



Average 
attendance 



23 
31 
14 
38 
43 
16 



165 



In addition to the above-mentioned agencies for the preparation 
of prospective teachers, others have been provided through non- 
state effort. I refer to the private normals and the teacher- 
training courses of the private and denominational colleges. Like 
the state institutions of higher education, quite a number of the 
private and denominational schools have rendered noteworthy 
service in promoting the educational development of the State. 
A department of education has been maintained at John B. Stet- 
son University since 1897,^' and practically all other non-state 
institutions of collegiate rank have given, almost from the time 
of their establishment, some excellent courses for the preparation 
of teachers. 

The Examination and Certification of Teachers. — Another 
factor which has contributed considerably in raising the standard 
of the teaching corps has been the improvement in examining 
and certificating teachers. The first advance was made in 1893, 
when a law was enacted creating a state uniform system of ex- 
amination and certification.^^ This law provided for the granting 
of six forms of certificates — third-grade, second-grade, first- 
grade, state, state life, and primary life. The first three of these 
were to be issued by the county superintendent, but only upon 
examination given in specified subjects and held on specified 
days, all examinations to be on questions prepared and sent out 
by the state superintendent and the papers of all examinees 
graded by a committee of three leading teachers selected by the 
county board of education. They were to be good for one, two, 

5^ See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1896-98, p. 326. 
5s See Laws of Florida, 1893, Chap. 4192. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 189 

and three years, respectively, but only in the county issued, ex- 
cepting the first-grade certificate, which was to be good in any 
county when endorsed by the superintendent of that county. 
However, no teacher was to be granted more than one third- 
grade certificate, nor more than two second-grade certificates. 
The other three certificates — state, state life, and primary life — 
were to be issued by the state superintendent, the state certificate 
to be issuable only to persons who had at least twenty-four 
months' experience in teaching and had taught at least eight 
months in Florida under a first-grade certificate, the state life 
certificate only to eminently successful teachers who were en- 
dorsed by three persons holding state certificates and who had 
taught at least thirty months in a high school of the State under 
a state certificate, and the primary life certificate only to em- 
inently successful primary teachers who had taught three years 
in the State. These certificates were to be good in any part of 
the State, the first for a period of five years, and the last two 
for life. The law provided, also, that any of the six forms 
of certificates could be revoked by the authority granting it, 
whenever the holder proved unsuccessful, incompetent or im- 
moral. 

As in all pronounced reforms, particularly in educational 
affairs, the opposition to this law was at first very bitter, coming 
mainly from the non-progressive elements of the teaching pro- 
fession.^" Construing this opposition as adverse public sentiment, 
the legislature of 1895 amended the law by stripping it of several 
of its progressive features.*'*' It made the third- and second-grade 
certificates good for two and three years, respectively, and re- 
issuable indefinitely; struck out the provision for primary life 
certificates to eminently successful primary teachers, but without 
invalidating those already issued ; and made the second-grade 
certificate, also, good in any county when endorsed by the super- 
intendent of that county. In addition to these amendments, a 
few others were made, but the only really progressive feature 
added was the provision for granting, without examination, a 
first-grade certificate to any graduate from either of the state 
normal schools. Despite the retrogressive features, however, the 

59 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 81-86. 

60 See Laws of Florida, 1895, Chap. 4331. 



190 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

system of examination and certification was still considerably 
better than it had ever been prior to 1893. It continued to be, as 
it had been since 1893, a significant factor in improving the 
scholarship of the teaching body.^^ 

Since 1895 there have been many changes in the system of 
examining and certificating teachers, the first of any importance 
being in 1903, when the legislature passed another certification 
law.^^ This law repealed the provisions for aged teachers' cer- 
tificates, made in 1901,*'^ but without canceling those already 
issued. It made the third-, second-, and first-grade certificates 
good for two, four, and five years, respectively, instead of two, 
three, and four, as they had been since 1895, and all of them 
good in any county when endorsed by the superintendent of 
that county. It restored the primary certificate, which was re- 
pealed in 1895, making it issuable by the state superintendent 
to applicants furnishing satisfactory proof of peculiar fitness for 
primary teaching and making a grade of eighty per cent in 
an examination on primary studies and methods, and good for 
four years in the first, second, and third grades of the primary de- 
partments of regularly graded schools and in public kindergartens, 
or for life after four years of successful teaching under the cer- 
tificate and upon the endorsement of the state superintendent. It 
provided for a special certificate, making it issuable by the state 
superintendent, also, to applicants furnishing satisfactory proof 
of peculiar fitness for teaching any one or more branches not 
included in the requirements for a second-grade certificate and 
making a grade of not less than ninety per cent in an examination 
on such branch or branches, and good for five years in the 
special branch or branches for which issued. The requirements 
for the third-grade, second-grade, first-grade, state, and state 
life certificates were left practically the same as they had been 
since 1893. It provided for a first-grade life certificate, making 
it issuable by the superintendent of any county, without further 
examination, to teachers presenting satisfactory evidence of good 
moral character and of having taught successfully in the State 
for six years under first-grade certificates with an average of 

61 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, p. 24. 

62 See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5204. 

63 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4995. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 191 

not less than ninety per cent and issued since January i, 1894, 
and good in any county when endorsed by the superintendent 
of that county. It provided, also, for life extension of first-grade 
certificates, such extension to be granted by any county super- 
intendent, upon examination, to holders of such certificates pre- 
senting satisfactory evidence of good moral character and of 
having taught successfully in the State for twenty years, nine 
•of these under certificates issued since January i, 1894. 

Another important change was made in 1913, when the legis- 
lature passed an act to enable all graduates of the normal or 
collegiate departments of the University of Florida and the 
Florida State College for Women, and of any other college or 
university in the State that would submit to such inspection and 
regulations as the state board of education and the state board 
of control might prescribe, to secure from the state superintendent 
a state certificate, provided they had devoted one fifth of their 
time in the collegiate departments to professional training, and 
in the examinations at the close of the junior and senior years 
had made " a general average of not less than eighty-five per 
cent on all subjects, with a grade of not less than sixty per cent 
on any subject." ^'^ Four years later this law was considerably 
amended,®^ the principal amendment being the provision for the 
issuance of a life graduate state certificate by the state superin- 
tendent, without further examination, " to any teacher holding 
a graduate state certificate who has successfully taught in this 
State for a period of twenty-four months under a graduate state 
certificate, and who shall present satisfactory endorsement from 
three persons holding life certificates showing eminent ability 
in teaching and school government." 

Still another important change was made in 191 5, when a 
law was enacted providing for the extension of certificates.®^ 
According to this act any unexpired Florida teacher's certificate 
may be extended one year by the holder thereof furnishing the 
state superintendent satisfactory evidence of having attended one 
of the state summer schools and having credit for work done 
therein, and such certificate may be extended one year for each 
succeeding session attended. 

64 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6540. 

65 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7373. 

66 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6835. 



192 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

But the most significant changes in the system of examining 
and certificating teachers were effected in 191 7 by the passage 
of the new examination and certification law.^^ The various 
provisions of this law will be given in Chapter X. To avoid 
too much repetition, therefore, we shall notice only the chief 
one here — the provision for a state board of examiners. This 
board is composed of three eminently successful teachers ap- 
pointed by the state board of education upon the nomination 
of the state superintendent. Its principal duties are to prepare 
all examination questions, to conduct all examinations, to grade 
all examinations except as may be provided by the state board of 
education, and " to report weekly to the state superintendent 
the name of each examinee with the grade made on each sub- 
ject and the grade of certificate to which each is entitled." The 
questions must be of such nature as to test " the ability to teach 
rather than verbal memory and a knowledge of specific facts," 
and the examinations must be " as uniform in the conduct, in 
the grading, and in the question tests as may be possible without 
repetition of the same questions." One examination must be 
held in four or more different sections of the State every month, 
and one in each county every year, and a printed schedule of 
the places and dates of all the examinations must be sent to 
each county superintendent in July of the preceding year. As 
Superintendent Sheats says, this system of examining teachers 
has already proven a success. It has helped to raise the quali- 
fications of the teaching body and to guard against those un- 
qualified for the profession.®^ 

The Training of Teachers in Service. — Still another factor 
which has helped to increase the quality of the teaching force 
has been the improvement in facilities for training teachers while 
in service. During the first four years of the present period 
practically the only facilities for this training consisted of annual 
state teachers' associations of one week's duration, annual county 
teachers' associations or institutes of one or more days' duration, 
and a few teachers' summer training schools of one month's dura- 
tion, these schools being held, for the most part, under county 

67 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372. 

68 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 42 ; cf. Bien. Rep. 
of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 47-52. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 193 

control and at county expense.^® But, realizing the importance of 
better-trained teachers, and also the value of teachers' summer 
training schools as a " means of improving the work of those en- 
gaged in teaching," the legislature of 1897 passed an act to pro- 
vide for such schools for the teachers of both races.^" The sum of 
$3,000 for each of the years 1897 and 1898 was appropriated 
for this purpose, the schools to be of two months' duration, 
and to be held at such times and places as the state superin- 
tendent should designate. Similar appropriations were made by 
the legislatures of 1899,^^ 1901," and 1903." The schools that 
were provided were taught by the leading teachers of the State 
and were quite well attended by the teachers of both races/* 

Another advanced legislative step along this line was the pro- 
vision for holding teachers' summer training schools at the three 
state institutions of higher learning. This step was first taken 
in 1905, when the state board of control was vested with this 
power.'^^ The sum of $2,500 was appropriated for that and the 
ensuing year to carry out the provision.'^^ For the continuation 
of these schools the legislature of 1907 appropriated $4,000 for 
that and the ensuing year.'^'' Similar appropriations were made 
by the legislatures of 1909, 191 1, and 1913.^® However, the 
summer school act passed by the legislature of 1913 differed 

69 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 107-13 ; and Bien. 
Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, pp. 54-62. 

As these report's show, the sum of $4,500 was received from the Pea- 
body Fund to help maintain the teachers' institutes and summer training 
schools. 

70 See Laws of Florida, 1897, Chap. 4566. 
'■I See Laws of Florida, 1899, Chap, 4681. 

72 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4996. 

73 See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5208. 

7* The annual reports of these schools, given in the various biennial 
reports of the state superintendent, show that the average annual enroll- 
ment for both races was 587, of whom 366 were whites and 181 negroes. 
The average attendance for 1897-1902, the figures for 1903 and 1904 not 
being given, was 410, of whom 289 were whites and 121 negroes. 

75 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5384, Sec. 21. 

76 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, p. 12. 

77 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, pp. 301 and 312. 

7s See the annual reports of these schools, given in the various bi- 
ennial reports of the state superintendent. 



194 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

in many respects from those passed by previous legislatures.'^® 
It made the summer school for teachers a fixed and permanent 
institution. Such a school was established at each of the state 
institutions of higher education and placed under the control 
of the state board of public instruction. The board was author- 
ized and directed to hold sessions of one or more of these 
schools each summer, the sessions to begin not later than June 
15th and to continue not less than eight weeks.®'' The president 
of the university of Florida and the president of the Florida 
State College for Women were made president, respectively, of 
the summer school connected with each of said institutions ; ®^ 
and the presidents of these two institutions, together with the state 
superintendent, were constituted a board to select the teachers 
for all the state summer schools, to prescribe the courses of study 
therefor, and to make such further rules and regulations govern- 
ing the same as they should deem proper. And finally, it pro- 
vided that any teacher could have his or her certificate extended 
one year by attending one of these schools and securing credit 
for work done therein. As one would expect, therefore, these 
schools, especially those held since 191 3, have been well attended 
by the teachers of both races. ®^ It may also be said that they 
have been taught by competent and well-trained men and women 
and have rendered valuable service to the puplic-school teachers 
of the State. 

Other agencies that have been provided for improving the 
work of those engaged in teaching have been the school inspectors 
or supervisors. Since 1907 the State has been provided with 
a high-school inspector, whose expenses have been borne largely 

^9 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6498. 

80 Two years later the law was amended to make the sessions begin 
not later than June 28th and continue not less than ten weeks (see Laws 
of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6835). 

81 Two years later the president of the Agricultural and Mechanical 
College for Negroes was made president of the summer school con- 
nected with that institution (see Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6835). 

82 The annual reports of these schools, given in the various biennial 
reports of the state superintendent, show that the average annual enroll- 
ment for both races during the five-year period 1914-18 was 857, of 
whom T'^i'] were whites and 120 negroes. The average attendance for 
this same period was 747, of whom 642 were whites and 105 negroes. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 195 

by the General Education Board. However, the person who has 
held this position has never devoted all his time to the work 
of visiting and supervising high schools, for he has also been 
professor of secondary education at the state university. Never- 
theless, as Superintendent Sheats says, he has done his work 
well and performed a valuable service to the high-school teachers 
of the State.^^ A similar provision has been made for the 
public elementary schools, also. The first step was taken in 191 1, 
when the State was provided with an elementary rural school 
inspector, an officer whose expenses were borne entirely by the 
Southern Education Board. Professor George M. Lynch, whom 
the board selected for this important position, gave all his time 
to visiting and supervising the elementary rural schools.^* By 
1913 his services had proven so valuable that the legislature 
of that year passed an act providing for two rural school in- 
spectors.^^ These officers are appointed by the governor upon 
the nomination of the state superintendent.^^ They are required 
to devote all their time to the work of visiting and supervising 
rural schools and performing such educational work, when the 
schools are not in operation, as may be required of them by 
the state board of education. They are required, also, to work 
under the direction of the state superintendent. Their salaries 

83 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, pp. 52 and 293. 

The first inspector was Prof. George M. Lynch, who resigned in 191 1 
to become state inspector of elementary rural schools. He was succeeded 
by Dr. John A. Thackston, who served until 191S, when he resigned to 
become professor of education at the University of Tennessee. Since 
then the position has been held by Prof. W. S. Cawthon. 

s* See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, pp. 243 and 294. 

85 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6539. 

86 The first appointees to these positions were Prof. George M. Lynch, 
who had been employed for two years in a similar work by the 
Southern Education Board, and Hon. Shelton Philips, ex-superintendent 
of schools of Levy County. Both began their work July i, 1913. Prof. 
Lynch resigned September i, 1915, to resume the work of teaching. He 
was succeeded by Hon. R. L. Turner, county superintendent of Citrus 
County. Mr. Philips, however, served in this capacity until July i, 1919, 
when he was appointed state director for vocational education. He was 
succeeded by Hon. W. B. Feagle, of High Springs. Mr. Feagle resigned 
October i, 1920, when Miss Christian McDonald, of DeFuniak Springs, 
was appointed to fill the vacancy. 



196 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



and traveling expenses are provided for by annual state appropri- 
ations. As in other states, these officers have rendered invaluable 
service in improving the efficiency of the teachers of the rural 
schools.^'^ 

In addition to the foregoing agencies for the improvement of 
those already engaged in teaching, valuable service has been 
rendered, also, by the annual state teachers' association, which 
has always been greatly stressed by the state superintendent, 
the summer schools for teachers that have been held by various 
county boards of education, and the educational journals 
which have been taken by the teachers. This is partially shown 
by the following table. 



TABLE XXIV 

Statistics Relating to the Number of Teachers Attending Summer 

Schools and State Teachers' Associations and Taking 

Educational Journals (1897-1920)88 



Attending summer schools: 

Both races 

White 

Negro 

Attending state associations: 

Both races 

White 

Negro 

Taking educational journals: 

Both races 

White 

Negro 



1897- 


1902- 


1907- 


1912- 


1917- 


98 


03 


08 


13 


18 


973 


603 


555 


783 


1,019 


712 


465 


461 


658 


930 


261 


138 


94 


125 


89 


488 


385 


469 


425 


581 


303 


282 


334 


344 


452 


185 


103 


135 


81 


129 


1,672 


1,661 


1,511 


1,901 


2,684 


1.255 


1,225 


1,126 


1,510 


2,185 


417 


436 


385 


391 


499 



I9I9- 

20 



1. 113 
902 
211 

825 
561 
264 

3.279 

2,688 
591 



The Salaries of Teachers. — Another important factor, partly a 
cause, and partly a consequence of the improvement that has 
taken place in regard to the teaching body, has been the large 
increase in the compensation of the teachers. The average 
monthly salary of teachers for 1893-94 was $34-50. and the 
average length of school term was 4.85 months. The average 
annual salary, therefore, was $167.32. The average monthly sal- 

87 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 55- 

88 This table has been prepared from figures given in various reports 
of the state superintendent of public instruction. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



197 



ary of teachers for 1919-20 was $79.80, and the average length of 
school term was 6.65 months. The average annual salary, there- 
fore, was $530.67. As is shown by these figures, the compen- 
sation of teachers has more than doubled since 1893. The 
progress along this line is well shown by the following table. 

TABLE XXV 
Average Salaries of Teachers Dtjring the Period 1893-1920 



Average monthly sal- 
aries of teachers :" 

All teachers 

White males . . 
White females 
Negro males . . 
Negro females 

Average length of 

school term in 
months:* 

Both races 

White 

Negro 

Average yearly sal- 
aries of teachers :" 

All teachers 

White males . , 
White females 
Negro males . , 
Negro females 



1893-94 



$34-50 
38.25 
35-25 
30.00 

28.75 



4-85 
4-95 
4-75 



5167.33 
189.34 
174.49 
142.50 
136.56 



1897-98 



$33-73 
38.66 
33-96 
28.85 
26.73 



5-20 

5-30 
4-95 



P175.40 
204.90 

179-99 
142.81 

132.31 



1902-03 



$32-78 
45-49 
32.13 
30.50 
20.92 



5-25 
5-55 
4-75 



?I72.I0 

252.47 

178.32 

144.88 

99-37 



1907-08 



$44-69 
67.90 
44.26 
37-65 
27.22 



5-40 
5-60 
4-95 



$241.33 
380.24 
247.86 
186.37 
134-74 



1912-13 



$52.53 
74-40 
53-00 
37-38 
32.04 



6.00 
6.70 
4.80 



?3i5-i8 
498.48 
355-10 
179.42 
153-79 



1917-18 



^60.72 
91.05 
60.98 
47-93 
32.23 



6.50 
7.10 
5.10 



$394-68 
646.46 
432.96 
244-44 
164-37 



1919-20 



$ 79-80 

119.80 

81.00 

61.20 

43-20 



6.6s 
7.10 
5-55 



$530.67 
850.58 
575-10 
339-66 
239.76 



" The figures given here have been taken from the state superintendent's re- 
ports for the years for which the figures are given. 

' The figures given here have been obtained by dividing the average length of 
the school term in days, as given in the reports of the state superintendent, by 
twenty, which is the length of the school month in days. 

' The figures given here have been obtained by multiplying the average monthly 
salaries of the teachers by the length of the school term in months. 



IV. The Financing of Public Education 

Thus far, in evidences of growth and advancement in public 
education as revealed by the progress that has been made in 
the system of instruction, the environment and equipment of the 
schools, and the teaching body have been discussed. Another 
evidence that is deserving of mention is the progress that has been 
made in financing the public-school system. In discussing this 



198 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

topic attention will be given to the following sub-topics : ( i ) 
school expenditures, (2) school funds and taxation, and (3) ap- 
portionment of the school funds. 

School Expenditures. — The increase in the annual expenditure 
for public-school education in recent years is very significant. 
Since 1892 the increase for each pupil in average attendance 
has been from $8.71 to $42.25, or a gain of 385 per cent. For 
each pupil of school age the expenditure has increased from $3.76 
to $22.65, or a gain of 503 per cent. The total annual ex- 
penditure has increased from $542,098.06 to $7,003,188.38, or a 
gain of 1,192 per cent. As is seen, the growth of this form 
of expenditure has been very rapid. It has also been constant, 
as is shown by the table on the next page. 

School Funds and Taxation. — To meet the demands of the 
people for better schools and longer terms the school officers 
found it absolutely necessary to have more liberal provisions 
for the support of public education. During the years 1892-1904 
the public-school income was entirely inadequate, many of the 
counties which had already levied the maximum school-tax 
being compelled to go in debt to defray the expenses of the schools 
that were provided.^'* As Superintendent Sheats said, further 
development of the public-school system was almost impossible 
without an increase in the public-school income.®*^ To efifect 
this development there have been a number of provisions looking 
to an increase in the annual income for public education. Three 
of these deserve mention. The first was in 1904, when a con- 
stitutional amendment was adopted raising the maximum rate of 
millage to be assessed in each county for school purposes from 
five to seven mills on the dollar."^ The next was in 1912, when 
the constitution was amended to allow an additional school-tax 
of five mills on the dollar in any special-tax school-district 
where a majority of the qualified electors thereof have voted 
for the issuance of bonds for the exclusive use of public free 
schools within such district.^" In 1918 another constitutional 

8^ See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, pp. 41, 47-48. 

90 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1896-98, p. 38. 

»i See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, pp. 8-9. 

®2 See Digest of the School Laws of the State of Florida (compiled 
by W. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1915), pp. 
8-9. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 



199 



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200 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

amendment was adopted fixing the maximum county school-tax 
at ten instead of seven mills on the dollar.®* Thus we see that 
the people of Florida have proven their willingness to provide 
for the education of the youth of the State. 

Apportionment of the School Funds. — Since 1892 there has 
been one rather important change in regard to the method of 
apportioning the school funds. It was made in 1894, when an 
amendment to the constitution was adopted requiring all state 
funds for the support and maintenance of public free schools®^ 
to be distributed among the several counties of the State in 
proportion to the average attendance at school, instead of the 
number of school youth.®® As Superintendent Sheats said,®'^ this 
new method of apportioning the funds had a tendency to correct 
the inequality of the old school-census method. It has also 
helped considerably in equalizing educational opportunities and 
in stimulating local effort to get the children into school. In 
my opinion, it may still be relied upon as a factor in the future 
development of public education in the State. 

Summary 

During the present period (1892-1921) there has been a con- 
tinuous growth of interest, and also the enactment of new and 
improved legislation, regarding the environment and equipment 
of the public schools of Florida. As a result, more suitable 
school plants have been provided; greater provision has been 
made for guarding the health of the pupils ; and better and more 
adequate textbooks have been secured. 

During this period notable progress has been made in respect 
to the teaching body. There has been a marked increase in 
the number of those employed to teach, and also in their fitness 
for service. Better provision has been made for the prepara- 
tion of prospective teachers. There has been a great improve- 

84 See Laws Relating to Education Enacted by the Florida Legislature 
of igi7 and 1919 (compiled by W. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, 1919), p. i. 

95 The chief source is the one-mill tax on the dollar of all taxable 
property in the State, which furnishes over eight per cent of the money 
used in financing the pubhc free schools. 

98 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, p. 54. 

97 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., ig(X)-igo2, p. 47. 



THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 201 

ment in the system of examination and certification. Better 
facilities have been provided for the training of teachers in 
service. And the average annual salary of the teachers has 
more than doubled. 

Lastly, there has been a great advance with regard to financing 
the public-school system. In the first place, the annual school 
expenditure has greatly increased. Secondly, the people of the 
State have voted three different times for more liberal provisions 
for the support of schools. And, in the third place, a better 
method of apportioning the school funds has been adopted. 



CHAPTER IX 

SOME FACTORS FAVORING THE RECENT ADVANCE 
OF EDUCATION 

Having reviewed the recent advance of public education in 
Florida, we shall now turn our attention for a while to the factors 
that have proven favorable to this advance. We have already 
noticed rather briefly some of them ; but in this chapter we shall 
consider some additional ones. In the first place, let us notice 
the growth of population as one of these factors. 

The Growth of Population. — According to the United States 
census, in 1890 the total population of Florida was only 391,422 
— the white 224,949 and the colored 166,473. Moreover, the 
inhabitants were sparsely distributed, some places being very 
thinly inhabited. Such a condition, of course, was quite un- 
favorable to intellectual and educational activity. But since then 
there has been a rapid and persistent growth of population in 
practically every part of the State. By 1900 the total number 
of inhabitants had increased to 528,542 — the white 297,333, 
the colored 231,209; ^ by 1910 to 752,619 — the white 443,634, 
the colored 308,985 ; ^ and by 1920 to 966,210 — the white 605,356, 
the colored 360,854.^ In other words, since 1890 the colored 
population has increased 117 per cent, and the white 170. As 
is evident, therefore, this increase in the number of inhabitants 
is one explanation of the recent development of public education 
in the State. 

The Increase of Wealth. — Parallel with the rapid growth of 
population there has been a rapid increase of wealth throughout 
Florida since 1898. In 1898 the assessed value of all the prop- 
erty of the State was only $95,117,156.* As the sources of the 
income for public free-school purposes were, and still are, found 

1 United States census of 1900. 

2 United States census of 1910. 
2 United States census of 1920. 

* See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins.. 1896-98, p. 150. 

202 



FACTORS FAVORING ADVANCE OF EDUCATION 203 

mainly in the taxable property, — about eight per cent of the 
income being derived from these sources — this low valuation 
thereon accounts for the fact that in every county the school 
funds were very inadequate. Though three fourths of the coun- 
ties, and many of the school districts, levied the maximum 
school tax allowed by the constitution,^ the public free-school 
funds for 1897-98 amounted to but $683,568^ — only about $4 
for each child of school age. As is patent, this condition, like 
that of the scattered population, was very unfavorable to the 
development of free schools. Since then, however, the value 
of the taxable property of the State has increased greatly. By 
1908 it had increased to $152,541,453 ; ^ by 19 13 to $211,421,596; ^ 
by 1918 to $322,216,072;^ and by 1920 to $356,880,287.^*' As 
a result of this increase, to a large extent, the public free-school 
income has also increased greatly. The total receipts for 1907-08, 
excluding loans and balance on hand, amounted to $1,428,165,^^ 
or about $6 per school youth; for 1912-13 $2,231,544,12 q^. ^n^yre 
than $8 per school youth; for 1917-18 $4,494,568,^^ or more 
than $14 per school youth; and for 1919-20 $10,704,403," or 
more than $34 per school youth. This increase of wealth, then, 
is another explanation of the recent advance of public education. 
The Growth of Public Interest in Free Schools. — But perhaps 
the chief factor has been the growth of public interest in free 
schools. For several years public sentiment in favor of universal 
education has been rapidly growing among the people throughout 
the State. This is evident by the willingness with which they 
have supported the schools. The table on the following page 
shows how the counties have taxed themselves for their support. 
As will be seen in this table in 1892-93 only twenty-four coun- 
ties levied the maximum school tax allowed by the constitution ; 

5 Ibid., p. 38. 
^ Ibid., p. 21. 

7 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, p. 447- 

8 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 85. 

9 See Bien. Rep. of Supf. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 135. 

10 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 119. 
" See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, p. 450. 

12 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 89. 

13 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 26. 
1* See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 123. 



204 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



whereas in 1917-18 every county was levying the maximum, 
which in the meantime had Been 'increased from five to seven mills 
on the dollar ; ^^ and in 1919-20 every county but nine was 
levying the maximum, which, as we have seen, had been increased 
the year before from seven to ten mills. In 1892-93 there was 
not a single special-tax school-district. But in 1902-03 there 

TABLE XXVII 

How THE Counties Taxed Themselves for the Support of Schools 

(1892-1920)16 



Number of counties levying lo mills 

(maximum since 1918) 

Number levying 9 mills 

Number levying 8| mills 

Number levying 7^ mills 

Number levying 7 mills (maximum 

1904-18) 

Number levying more than 6 but less 

than 7 mills 

Number levying 6 mills 

Number levying more than 5 but less 

than 6 mills 

Number levying 5 mills (maximum 

1886-1904) 

Number levying more than 4 but less 

than 5 mills 

Number levying 4 mills 

Number levying more than 3 but less 

than 4 mills 

Number levying 3 mills (minimum 

since i 

Total number of counties 



1892- 
1893 



o 


21 

9 
8 

3 

4 



45 



1897- 



o 
34 



45 



1902- 
1903 



44 



1907- 
1908 



o 
19 



5 
12 



45 



46 



1912- 
1913 



42 

3 
o 

2 



o 
o 

o 

o 



I9I7- 
I9I8 






o 
o 

54 




54 



1919- 
1920 



45 
5 
I 
I 



54 



were 259 ;i'' in 1912-13, 699;^^ and in 1919-20, 883,^'' many 
of them embracing as much as one third of an entire county. 
During this period the county revenue for public education in- 

15 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, pp. 8-9. 
1" The figures given here have been taken from the various reports 
of the state superintendent of public instruction. 

17 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 68. 

18 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 88. 
1^ See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 122. 



FACTORS FAVORING ADVANCE OF EDUCATION 205 

creased from $354,974-° to $3,251,336;^^ and the revenue de- 
rived from district taxes increased from nothing-" to $1,419,130.^^ 
Furthermore, since 191 2, when special-tax school-districts were 
allowed to issue bonds for providing school buildings, grounds, 
and so forth,^^ quite a number of the districts have bonded 
themselves for such purposes. Within less than four years after 
they had been given this privilege over $4,000,000 worth of bonds 
had been voted.^^ Thus we see that there has been a rapid 
growth of public interest in the work of the free schools ; and 
this, to repeat, is perchance the principal explanation of the re- 
cent educational progress. 

Improved School Legislation. — ^Another important factor has 
been the new and improved school legislation that has been 
enacted. While this has not been the most important, as some 
people are inclined to believe, it has certainly been requisite 
for the educational development of the State. Among the ad- 
vanced legislative steps which have been taken to promote this 
development are : provisions for compulsory school-attendance ; ^* 
enlargement and enrichment of the regular public elementary- 
and secondary-school curricula ; ^^ promotion of the teaching of 
agriculture, home economics, and industrial arts ; ^® the estab- 
lishment of reform schools ; ^'^ the provision for kindergartens ; ^^ 
the consolidation of the higher educational institutions ; -^ pro- 
visions for the health of the school children ; ^° provisions for 
uniform textbooks in the public elementary and secondary 
schools ; ^^ the furnishing of free textbooks to indigent children ; ^^ 

20 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 66. 

21 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 120. 

22 See Digest of the School Laws of the State of Florida (compiled by 
W. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1915), pp. 8-9 
and 59-62. 

23 Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt'. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 34. 

24 Vide supra, pp. 112 and 114. 
'^^ Ibid., pp. 115-21 and 123-31. 
^^ Ibid., pp. 141-49. 

27 Ibid., pp. 150-51. 

^^Ibid., pp. 151-152. 

^^ Ibid., p. 162. 

^^ Ibid., pp. 172 and 174-75. 

^^Ibid., pp. 175-78. 

32 Ibid., pp. 178-79, 



206 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

the providing of better facilities for the training of both pros- 
pective and active teachers ; ^^ improvement of the system of 
examining and certificating teachers ; ^* provisions for increasing 
the school-tax ; ^^ apportioning the state school-funds on the basis 
of average attendance at school ; ^'^ the giving of state aid for 
public education ; ^'^ and provisions for better general adminis- 
tration of the schools.^^ 

State Aid. — Still another factor in the educational awakening 
has been the system of state aid. Though the State has relied 
mainly upon local taxes for the support of education, it has 
contributed cosiderably for this purpose. Besides the annual 
income from the state school-fund and the one-mill state tax, 
M^hich has been distributed among the several counties on the 
basis of school attendance,^^ there have been numerous appropri- 
ations for various phases of public education. The different legis- 
latures have certainly been quite generous, considering the pop- 
ulation and wealth of the State. For example, since 1897 they 
have made appropriations for the maintenance ol teachers' 
summer training schools, the total amount appropriated for this 
purpose during the period 1897-1918 being $81,600;^* in 1901 
and 1903 appropriations were made for the carrying on of 
teacher-training courses in the normal schools at DeFuniak 
Springs and St. Petersburg, the amount set apart for this work 
being $38,000; ^'^ also in 1903 the sum of $50,000 per annum 
was appropriated for the years 1903-04 and 1904-05 to aid all 
high schools meeting certain requirements of the state board 
of education ; *'' in 1905 the sum of $125,000 per annum was 
appropriated to aid both elementary and high schools during the 
years 1905-06 and 1906-07 ; ^^ that same year the sum of $191,000 

33 7&iJ., pp. 179-88 and 192-96. 
^^Ibid., pp. 188-92. 

35 Ibid., p. 198. 

36 Ibid., p. 200. 

37 The legislation along this line is discussed below. 

^^Vide supra, pp. ig3-g4; and the reports of these schools in the 
various biennial reports of the superintendent of public instruction. 

*9 Vide supra, pp. 181-82. 

*° Vide supra, pp. 127-29 ; Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, 
pp. 228-34; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, pp. 109-22. 

41 Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, pp. 12-14 and 123- 
44; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, pp. 323-54- 

Under the provisions of Chapter 5381, Laws of 1905, the sum of 



FACTORS FAVORING ADVANCE OF EDUCATION 207 

was set apart for the establishment and maintenance of the three 
institutions of higher education/^ and since then the apropri- 
ations to these institutions have amounted to nearly $1,500,000; *^ 
two years later the legislature continued the state aid to ele- 
mentary and secondary schools,** the total amount set apart for 
this purpose being $330,000; *^ since 1913 the salaries and travel- 
ing expenses of two rural school inspectors have been provided 
for by annual state appropriations;*® in 1915 the sum of 
$18,384 was appropriated for agricultural-extension work during 
the biennium 1915-17;*^ that same year the sum of $50,000 
per annum was appropriated for the maintenance of teacher- 
training departments in high schools;*^ and in 1917 the legis- 
lature appropriated $40,003 for agricultural-extension work,*" 
and $33,149 for vocational education,^" during the years 1917-18 
and 1918-19. 

National Aid. — The Federal Government also has contributed 
considerably to the development of education in Florida. Some 

$50,000 was appropriated to continue for a period of two months all 
schools making an average daily attendance of eighty per cent of the 
total enrollment for the regular term. However, the appropriation for 
1906-07 was never paid, this act having been declared unconstitutional 
by the supreme court of Florida. Under the provisions of Chapter 5382, 
the sum of $50,000 was also appropriated to aid all schools measuring 
up to the standards of work set by the state board of education. Under 
the provisions of Chapter 5383, the sum of $25,000 was appropriated to 
continue for a period of one month all schools not receiving aid under 
either of the preceding chapters. 

42 Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, pp. 205-06. 

^^Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, pp. 278-79; 1914-16, 
pp. 319-20; and 1916-18, p. 385. 

44 Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, pp. 13-14 and 355-82. 

45 However, on account of a decision of the supreme court, none of 
this seems ever to have been paid (see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. 
Ins., 1908-10, pp. 269-73 ; and Digest of School Laws of the State of 
Florida, compiled by State Superintendent W. N. Sheats, 1915, pp. 47-50). 

46 Vide supra, pp. 195-96. 

*'' Vide supra, pp. 164-66; Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, 
PP- 336-39; and S. R. S. Doc. 40 (Revised Jan. i, 1919), p. 10. 

48 Vide supra, pp. 183-88. 

49 Vide S. R. S. Doc. 40 (Revised Jan. i, 1919), p. 10. 

so Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 772-74. 

In 1919 the legislature appropriated $75,000 for this purpose (see Laws 
of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7592) ; and in 1921, $90,205 (see Laws of Florida, 
1921, Chap. 8436). 



208 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

of the ways in which it has aided deserve mentioning. Since 
1892 it has given the State $625,000 for the establishment and 
maintenance of an agricultural experiment station,^^ and $947,000 
for " the more complete endowment and maintenance of col- 
leges for the henefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts " ; ^^ 
during the period 1914-19 it gave $236,325^^ for agricultural-ex- 
tension work in the State; *^ and since 1917 approximately $90,000 
has been appropriated by the Smith-Hughes Act for the pro- 
motion of vocational education.^* 

Private Appropriations. — There has been considerable aid from 
private appropriations, too. During the ten-year period 1893-1902 
the sum of $11,750 was received from the Peabody Educational 
Fund for the maintenance of summer schools for teachers.^' 
In 1905 the citizens of Gainesville gave $40,000 for the establish- 
ment of the state university, and 500 acres of land for the use 
of the university and agricultural experiment station.^® Since 
1907 the General Education Board has appropriated over $20,000 
to the state university to help pay the salary and traveling ex- 
penses of a professor of secondary education who has been a 
regular member of the university faculty and also state high- 
school inspector.^^ In 191 1 the Southern Education Board gave 
the university $2,700 for the salary and traveling expenses of 

SI See what is commonly known as the Hatch Act (1887), in U. S. 
Stat, at' L., xxiv, 440; and the Adams amendment to this act (1906), in 
Laws, 59th Cong., ist Sess., Chap. 951. 

^2 See what is commonly known as the second Morrill Act (1890), in 
U. S. Stat, at L., xxvi, 417; and the Nelson amendment to this act (1907), 
in U. S. Stat, at L., xxxiv, 1281. 

53 The sum of $108,312 was appropriated from the Smith-Lever funds, 
$120,348 from the farmers' co-operative demonstration funds of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, and $7,665 from other bureaus and 
ofRces of this department. 

^^Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 772-74; and Bulle- 
tin No. I, Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., p. 63. 

^^ Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 107 and 112; 
T894-96, pp. 54-56; 1896-98, pp. 49 and 63; 189&-1900, pp. 128 and 138; and 
1900-1902, pp. 135 and 142. 

5^ Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, pp. 224-25. 

^'^ Vide supra, pp. 194-95 ; Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub, Ins., 1912-14, pp. 
293-96; The General Education Board: an Account of its Activities, 1902- 
14. P- 93; and Catalogue, University of Florida, 1918-19, p. 15. 



FACTORS FAVORING ADVANCE OF EDUCATION 209 

a professor of elementary education and state inspector of ele- 
mentary rural schools.^® The following year the Peabody Board 
gave the State $40,000 for the erection and equipment of a build- 
ing for the use of the Teachers College and Normal School at 
the university. ^^ In addition to these benefactions, which have 
been the most important, many others have been made.^° 

The Influence of Education in Other States. — There can be 
no doubt that education in Florida also owes a considerable debt 
to the other states for what it has accomplished. In the first 
place, according to the United States census reports, in 1900 
and 1910 one-third of the inhabitants of the State were born 
outside of the State,**^ most of them being natives of Georgia, 
South Carolina, Alabama, North Carolina, New York, Virginia, 
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Mississippi, 
Indiana, Michigan, and Massachusetts.^^ Many of these were 
from places that had excellent schools ; and, of course, they car- 
ried with them to their new homes the ideals which they had 
imbibed in their old ones. In the second place, during the last 
three decades a large number of people from other states have 
spent the winters in Florida. These also have affected the edu- 
cation of the State. They have not only introduced many valu- 
able ideas relative to public education, but have caused the places 
of popular resort to vie with each other in providing various 
advantages, educational and otherwise. In the third place, there 
has not been a time during this period when several youths of 
Florida were not being educated in institutions in other parts of 

^s Vide supra, pp. 194-95 5 and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1910- 
12; pp. 161-62. 

This gift not only started the movement for rural-school inspection, but 
influenced legislative appropriations for this purpose. 

59 Vide Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1910-12, pp. 159-60; also Bien. 
Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 286. 

«oSee, especially, Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, p. 179; 
1908-10, p. 160; 1910-12, pp. i6a-i6i, 180, 193-94; 1912-14, p. 315; 1914-16, 
p. 320; 1916-18, p. 403; Catalogue, University of Florida, 1918-19, pp. 13- 
14) 34, 77 \ and Catalogue, Florida State College for Women, 1918-19, pp. 
21-22. 

61 The proportion is probably larger now. 

62 See Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, Vol. II, p. 315. 



210 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

the United States."^ It would indeed be difficult to evaluate the 
educational lessons that have been learned by the Florida students 
in these institutions and applied at home. Most of the leading 
educators of the State have been from among these students, 
or from among those who were called directly from educational 
institutions in other parts of the country. Thus it is manifest 
that the growth of education in Florida has been due, to some 
extent, at least, to the influence of education in other states. 

Better Administrative Control and Supervision. — ^Again, with- 
out any extended discussion of this point it is safe to say that 
the educational advancement has been partly due to better ad- 
ministrative control and supervision. Several steps in this direc- 
tion have already been pointed out ; for example, the provision 
for compulsory school attendance,^* the free transportation of 
pupils to and from school,*'^ the formulation of the elementary- 
and high-school curricula under the direction of the state super- 
intendent,®^ the provision for state adoption of textbooks for use 
in the elementary and high schools,'''^ and the inspection of ele- 
mentary and high schools by state inspectors.®^ But there have 
been other steps, three of which deserve to be mentioned. In 
1893 a law was enacted making the members of the county boards 

63 During the year 1905-06 there were 103 Florida students attending 
institutions of higher learning in other states, these being distributed as 
follows: 12 at Cornell, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale; 8 at the Universit;^ 
of Chicago, University of Michigan, and Northwestern University; 10 at 
the University of Virginia, Virginia Military Institute, and Washington 
and Lee University; 9 at the University of Arkansas, University of Ken- 
tucky, University of Missouri, and University of North Carolina; 9 at 
the George Peabody College for Teachers, University of Tennessee, and 
Vanderbilt University; 8 at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute and the 
University of Alabama; i at Tulane University of Louisiana; and 46 at 
Georgia institutions — 18 at Emory College (now Emory University), 14 
at the Georgia School of Technology, 2 at Mercer University, and 12 at 
the University of Georgia (see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, 
pp. 215-16). 

®* Vide supra, pp. 112 and 114. 

^^ Ibid., pp. 1 13-14. 

^'^ Ibid., pp. 115-21 and 123-31. 

^"^ Ibid., pp. 175-78. 

^^Ibid., pp. 194-95. 



FACTORS FAVORING ADVANCE OF EDUCATION 211 

of public instruction elective by popular vote.^" It required 
that each county should be divided into three school-board dis- 
tricts with, as nearly as practicable, the same number of voters 
in each district; and that the members of the county board of 
public instruction should be elected biennially, one from each 
school-board district, by the qualified electors of such districtsJ" 
Contrary to the predictions of many,'''^ the law has proven quite 
satisfactory. '^^ Greater popular interest in education has been 
awakened, and more efficient school-board members secured. In 
1899 an act was passed requiring the superintendent of public 
instruction of each county to take the census of the school popu- 
lation of his county before the fifteenth day of May in the year 
1900, and every tenth year thereafter, and report such census 
to the county school board and the state superintendent.''^ Since 
1889 this had been the duty of the local school supervisors, the 
law requiring the census to be taken in the year 1892, and every 
fourth year thereafter.'^* While the census should be taken 
oftener than every ten years, this change in the method of taking 
it was undoubtedly a move in the right direction.''^ In the third 
place, during the last few years some of the counties, without 
any legislative requirement, have secured an assistant superin- 
tendent to give additional supervision to the schools, particularly 
the rural.^® As is patent, therefore, there has been an improve- 
ment in regard to the general oversight and control of education 
in the State; and, as in business affairs, this is an important 
condition, as well as an index, of progress. 

Better Educational Leadership. — Finally, better educational 
leadership has been a very important factor in the recent ad- 
vance of public education ; for, as experience has shown, school 

69 Vide Laws of Florida, 1893, Chap. 4193. 

■^^ Since 1889 they had been appointed by the state board of education 
(see Laws of Florida, 1889, Chap. 3872, Sec. 3). 

71 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 132-34- 

72 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 555, 616, 628, 632, 
637, 640, 658, 667, 674, 681, 706, 718, 726, and 731. 

73 See Laws of Florida, 1899, Chap. 4679. 

7* See Laws of Florida, 1889, Chap. 3872, Sec. 2,7- 

75 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., i894r-96, pp. 21-22; 1896-98, pp. 
33-34; and 1900-1902, pp. 444-45- 

76 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 691. 



212 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

systems, like all other human institutions, can achieve things only 
through capable leaders. Since January 3, 1893, the State has 
been extremely fortunate in having at the head of its school 
system two splendid educational leaders — Hon. W. N. Sheats 
and Hon. W. M. Holloway. Excepting the eight-year period 
1905-13, when Mr. Holloway was state superintendent of public 
instruction, Dr. Sheats, the educational mentor of Florida, has 
held this p;Osition. Avoiding all invidious comparisons, one is 
safe in saying that he has done far more than any of his pred- 
ecessors for the movement for the advancement of education. 
He has been not only the author of practically all the constitu- 
tional and legislative provisions upon which progress in educa- 
tion is based, but also an efficient organizer, director, adviser, 
and inspirer of the public-school workers of the State. In fact, 
as a school administrator he has had but few superiors any- 
where ; and as a man he has always stood above reproach. He 
is stern but absolutely fair, progressive but sane, keen in his 
thinking, straight in all his dealings, and helpful in his sugges- 
tions. If such a leader can be kept at the head of the public- 
school system, there is every reason to believe that there will 
continue to be a persistent and unabated advance of public edu- 
cation throughout the State. 

Summary 

As shown in this chapter, there are at least ten factors that 
have favored the notable advance of public education in Florida 
since 1892. They are as follows: (i) the rapid and persistent 
growth of population in almost every part of the State; (2) the 
great increase in the amount of taxable property ; (3) the marked 
growth of public sentiment throughout the State in favor of 
universal education ; (4) the new and improved school legis- 
lation that has been enacted; (5) the system of state aid; (6) 
the aid received from the National Government; (7) numerous 
private benefactions; (8) the educational accomplishment in 
other states ; (9) better administrative control and supervision ; 
and (10) greater educational leaders, the most conspicuous fig- 
ure being Dr. W. N. Sheats, who has been state superintendent 
of public instruction for twenty years. 



CHAPTER X 

CONSPECTUS OF THE PRESENT PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM 

This chapter contains an outline of the present system of 
public education in Florida. The different phases of this system 
are subsumed under the following six headings: (I) general 
administrative control and supervision, (II) school population 
and attendance, (III) the system of public instruction, (IV) 
school environment and equipment, (V) the teaching staff, and 
(VI) school support. 

I. General Administrative Control and Supervision 

School Officers. — ^The officers of the educational system of 
the State are a state superintendent of public instruction, a state 
board of education, a state vocational-education board, a state 
board of control, a state board of examiners, a state high-school 
inspector, two state inspectors of elementary rural schools, a 
superintendent of public instruction for each county, a board 
of education for each county, local school supervisors, district 
trustees, and school-attendance officers. 

State Superintendent of Public Instruction. — The chief officer 
of the school system is the state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion, who has general supervision of all matters pertaining there- 
to.^ He is elected quadrennially, at the general election in 
November, by the qualified voters of the State.^ His salary is 
$3,600 a year.^ His principal duties and powers are as follows : * 
(i) to have the school laws, and such blanks, instructions, and 
so forth, as he may deem necessary, printed and distributed 

1 See Constitution of Florida, Art. IV, Sec. 25. 

^ Ibid., Sec. 20; and Gen. Stats., Sec. 172. 

3 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 145. 

*See Constitution of Florida, Art. IV, Sec. 27; Gen. Stats., Sees. 14:2- 
44 and 335; Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372, Sees. 6, 13-16, 17 (as 
amended by Laws of 1919, Chap. 7942), 21, and 23; Laws of 1917, Chap. 
7373, Sees, i, 3, and 4; and Laws of 1919, Chap. 7592, Sec. 6. 

213 



214 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

gratuitously to the school officers and teachers; (2) to hold 
conventions of county superintendents of public instruction and 
other school officers; (3) to assemble teachers in institutes and 
employ competent instructors therefor; (4) to apportion the 
interest of the state school- fund, and the fund raised by the 
one-mill state tax, among the various counties in proportion to 
the average attendance at school of children residing therein 
between the ages of six and twenty-one years; (5) to make 
such apportionment as seems just when the returns on which 
the apportionment should be made are defective or have not 
been received; (6) to decide appeals arising under the law, or 
refer the same to the state board of education; (7) to prescribe 
rules and regulations for the management of the department of 
public instruction; (8) to grant temporary, life, and graduate 
certificates; (9) to issue all certificates recommended by the state 
board of examiners, keep a record of the same, and publish in 
his biennial reports the names of all living holders of valid cer- 
tificates; (10) to suspend or revoke certificates whenever the 
holders prove incompetent, unsuccessful, or grossly immoral ; 
(11) to file and preserve certified copies of the monthly lists 
of persons who have paid their poll taxes; (12) to be a member 
and secretary of the state board of education; (13) to be a 
member and executive officer of the state board for vocational 
education; (14) to have a seal for his own official use; (15) to 
keep his office in the capitol; and (16) to make a biennial re- 
port to the governor as to his official acts, the receipts and ex- 
penditures of his office, and the requirements of the same. 

State Board of Education. — This board consists of the follow- 
ing state officers : ^ the governor, who is its president ; the state 
superintendent of public instruction, who is its secretary; the 
state treasurer, who is its treasurer; the attorney general, and 
the secretary of state. Its powers and duties are : ^ ( i ) to have 
charge of all the school lands; (2) to manage and provide for 
the safe-keeping and expenditure of all the school funds of the 

5 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 3 ; also Gen. Stats., Sec. 
335. 

^ See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 3 ; Gen. Stats., Sees. 336 
and 350; and Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372, Sec. 20, and Chap. 7376> 
Sec. 3. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 215 

State; (3) to determine appeals referred to it by the state su- 
cause; (5) to keep in view the establishment of schools on a 
perintendent ; (4) to remove any subordinate school officer for 
broad and liberal basis, the object of which being the giving of 
instruction in the higher branches not taught in the common 
schools; (6) to co-operate with the state superintendent in the 
management of the department of education; (7) to fill va- 
cancies in the county boards of public instruction upon the nom- 
ination of the state superintendent; (8) to approve rules and 
regulations suggested by the state board of examiners for con- 
ducting the examinations of all applicants for teachers' certifi- 
cates; and (9) to act as the board for vocational education in 
,the State. 

State Vocational-Education Board. — By act approved June 5, 
1917/ the legislature of Florida made provisions for accepting 
the vocational-education act of Congress known as the Smith- 
Hughes Act.^ The state board of education was designated as 
the board for vocational education in the State, and was charged 
with the following duties and powers : ® ( i ) to co-operate with 
the federal board for vocational education in administering the 
provisions of the foregoing congressional act; (2) to admin- 
ister any legislation pursuant thereto enacted by the State; (3) 
to administer all federal and state funds provided for the pro- 
motion of vocational education in the State; (4) to formulate 
plans for the promotion of vocational-education subjects as a 
part of the public-school system, and provide for the preparation 
of teachers in such subjects; (5) to fix the compensation of 
officials and assistants necessary for the administration of both 
the federal and state vocational-education acts, and to pay such 
compensation and necessary expenses from funds appropriated 
by the State; (6) to make studies and investigations in regard 
to vocational education; (7) to aid local communities in the 
establishment of vocational schools, departments, or classes; 
(8) to prescribe quahfications for the teachers, directors, and 
supervisors of vocational-education subjects, and provide fof 
their certification; (9) to co-operate with local communities in 

■^ See Laws o£ Florida, 1917, Chap. 7376. 

8 Florida was the first state in the South to take this step. 

^ See Laws of Florida, 19 19, Chap. 7592, Sees. 4 and 5. . 



216 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

the maintenance of vocational schools, departments, or classes, 
or establish such schools, departments, or classes under its own 
direction and control ; and ( lo) to establish and determine the 
qualifications to be possessed by persons engaged in the training 
of teachers of vocational subjects. 

By act approved May 31, 1919,^° the state superintendent of 
public instruction was designated as the executive officer of the 
state board for vocational education, and was authorized to des- 
ignate, by and with the advice and consent of the board, such 
assistants as were necessary to carry out the vocational-education 
provisions of the State. Since then a state director for voca- 
tional education has been provided for, and also a full-time state 
supervisor for each of the three phases of vocational education — 
agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries.^^ 

State Board of Control. — This board is composed of five mem- 
bers,^^ all of whom are appointed by the governor for a term 
of four years.^^ Its chief powers and duties are as follows : ^* 
(i) to have jurisdiction over and complete management and 
control of the following state educational institutions : the Uni- 
versity of Florida, the Florida State College for Women, the 
Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, and 
the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind; (2) to make all 
rules and regulations for the same not inconsistent with the gen- 
eral rules and regulations; (3) to appoint all managers, faculties, 
and other employees, and remove the same as it sees fit; (4) to 
fix their compensation and provide for their payment; (5) to 
have full possession and control of all property of each of the 
said institutions; (6) to provide for the courses of instruction; 
(7) to visit and inspect the said institutions, and provide for 

10 See Laws of Florida, 19 19, Chap. 7592, Sec. 6. 

"At present (1921) these officers are as follows: Hon. Shelton 
Philips, of Williston, state director for vocational education; Hon. E. A. 
Haynie, of Gainesville, state supervisor for agricultural education ; Hon. 
T. H. Quigley, of Gainesville, state supervisor for trade and industrial 
education; and Miss Lucy C. Cushman, of Tallahassee, state supervisor 
for home-economics education. 

12 One from east Florida, one from west Florida, one from middle 
Florida, one from south Florida, and one from middle south Florida. 

13 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5384, Sec. 13. 
^*Ibid., Sec. 19. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 217 

the proper keeping of accounts and other records thereof ; (8) 
to prepare all budgets of expenditures ; (9) to audit and approve 
all accounts before they are paid; (10) to provide necessary 
grounds, buildings, and other property; (11) to care for and 
maintain the same; and (12) to perform other necessary acts, 
but at all times subject to the state board of education. 

State Board of Examiners. — As we have already seen,^^ this 
board consists of three well-qualified teachers nominated by the 
state superintendent of public instruction and appointed by the 
state board of education. The annual salary of each member 
is $2,000 and traveling expenses not to exceed $800.^^ The 
duties of the board are : ^'^ ( i ) to prepare all questions to be 
used in the examination of applicants to teach; (2) to hold all 
examinations, both oral and written, under such rules and regu- 
lations suggested by it and approved by the state board of edu- 
cation; (3) to grade all examiners except as the state board 
of education may otherwise provide; (4) to make a weekly 
report to the state superintendent of public instruction as to the 
examinees' grades on the various subjects and the kind of cer- 
tificate to which each is entitled; (5) to send every county 
superintendent of public instruction, in July of each year, a 
printed schedule giving the dates and places of all examinations 
for the ensuing year; and (6) to remit monthly to the state 
treasurer all examination fees collected, and make to the state 
board of education a statement of the same, attaching thereto 
a copy of the treasurer's receipt. 

State High-School Inspector. — >As already stated,^^ the profes- 
sor of secondary education at the University of Florida acts 
as the state high-school inspector. He gives about half of his 
time to this line of work, which consists in visiting, supervising, 
standardizing, and classifying the high schools of the State. His 
salary and traveling expenses are borne by the General Educa- 
tion Board^^ and the University.^*' 

15 See page 192. 

16 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372, Sec. 24. 
"^"^ Ibid., Sees. 19-20, 22, and 24. 

18 See pages 194-95. 

19 The board donates $i,750 annually for this purpose. 

20 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 295. 



218 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

Rural-School Inspectors. — The State is provided with two 
rural-school inspectors.-^ These officers are nominated by the 
state superintendent of public instruction and appointed by the 
governor. They hold their positions subject to the state board 
of education. Each of them receives a salary of $2,000 a year 
and $1,250 a year for traveling expenses. Their duties are : (i) 
to visit and supervise the elementary rural schools, and promote 
in every way possible their development; (2) to perform such 
acts, when the schools are not in operation, as the state board 
of education may require of them; and (3) to make reports 
to the state superintendent of public instruction, under whose 
direction they must work. 

County Superintendents of Public Instruction. — The principal 
educational officer of the various counties is the county superin- 
tendent of public instruction, who is elected for a term of four 
years, at the general election, by the qualified electors in each 
county.^^ The salary of this officer varies among the different 
counties, being based upon the total annual school receipts,^^ 
exclusive of borrowed money. In counties where the receipts 
are less than $14,000 the minimum salary is $50 a month; from 
$14,000 to $20,000, $75 a month; from $20,000 to $40,000, 
$100 a month; from $40,000 to $70,000, $125 a month; from 
$70,000 to $100,000, $150 a month; from $100,000 to $120,000, 
$175 a month; and from. $120,000 to $200,000, $200 a month.^* 
His chief functions are as follows :^^ (i) to act as secretary 
of the county board of pubhc instruction; (2) to ascertain 
the proper places for the location of schools; (3) to visit and 
examine each school at least once each term, and give such ad- 
vice as he may deem proper; (4) to awaken an increased in- 
terest in public education; (5) to nominate suitable persons for 
local school supervisors; (6) to keep these supervisors supplied 

21 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6539; a^lso supra, p. 195. 

22 See Constitution of Florida, Art. VIII, Sec. 6; and Gen. Stats., Sec. 
172. 

23 Except in counties having a population between 37,000 and 40,000 
according to the state census of 1915, where it is $2,700 a year, payable 
in monthly installments (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8545, Sec 2). 

2* See Laws of Florida, 1907, Chap. 5658. 

25 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 345 and 351 ; Laws of Florida, 1915. Chap. 
6813, Sees. I and 3; and Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 20. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 219 

with the school laws, decisions, blanks, and regulations of the 
state department of education, confer with them frequently, and 
see that they attend to their duties; (7) to keep a record of the 
location of each school and of his expenses incurred in visiting 
the several schools; (8) to furnish the state superintendent of 
public instruction the names and addresses of all county school 
officers; (9) to decide questions and disputes when submitted 
to him, and refer his decisions to the county board of public 
instruction; (10) to guard the interests of the county in its 
contracts, and see that all funds apportioned to or raised by the 
county are properly applied ; (11) to revoke or suspend teachers' 
certificates for cause; (12) to forward certified copies of the 
tax collector's monthly lists of poll taxes to the state superin- 
tendent of public instruction; (13) to take the school census 
of his county, and report the same to the county board of public 
instruction and the state superintendent; (14) to furnish the 
state comptroller, when called for, a financial report of the 
schools in such form as to set forth the condition of the county 
and district school-funds, and preserve in his office an exact 
copy of the same; and (15) to make an annual report to the 
state superintendent of public instruction.^® 

County Boards of Public Instruction. — The different counties 
are provided with a county board of public instruction composed 
of three members, — one from each school-board district — who are 
elected biennially, at the general election, by the qualified voters 
of their respective counties.^^ The compensation of the members 
is $4 for each day's service and ten cents for each mile traveled,^* 
except in the counties having a population between 37,000 and 
50,000 according to the state census of 1915, or between 50,000 
and 150,000 according to the recent federal census, where it is 
$600 a year, payable in monthly installments.^^ The principal 

26 Such report must be filed with the state superintendent on or before 
August 15 of each and every year, the penalty for not doing so being the 
withholding of further payment of his salary by the county board of pub- 
lic instruction until it is notified by the state superintendent that such re- 
port has been received and accepted (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 

8547). 

27See Gen. Stats., Sees. 172 and 329. 

28 See Laws of Florida, 1907, Chap. 5656, Sec. i. 

29 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7882, Sec. i ; and Laws of 1921, 
Chap. 849s, Sec. i. 



220 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

powers and duties of each board are : ^"^ ( i ) to acquire and 
hold all school property of the county, except the property of 
the special-tax districts; (2) to establish and maintain schools 
for the accommodation of all persons between the ages of six 
and twenty-one years during not less than four months each year; 
(3) to appoint local school supervisors ; (4) to select and pro- 
vide school sites; (5) to provide school buildings, equipment, 
and so forth, and establish schools of higher grades when re- 
quired by the patrons; (6) to employ and pay the teachers of 
all the schools; (7) to audit and pay all its accounts; (8) to 
keep an accurate record of all its proceedings and official acts, 
and also of all moneys handled, and report the same to the state 
superintendent when required; (9) to prepare and file with the 
clerk of the circuit court an itemized monthly financial statement, 
and cause the same to be published in one of the county news- 
papers; (10) to perform all acts necessary for promoting the 
educational interests of the county; (11) to hold regular meet- 
ings by arrangement with the state superintendent, and convene 
a special session when requested by the county superintendent; 

(12) to prepare annually an itemized statement of the amount 
of money needed for school purposes for the next ensuing year, 
stating the amount in mills on the dollar of all taxable property, 
and furnish a copy of such statement to the county assessors ; 

(13) to examine at least twice a year the records of the tax 
collector which relate to poll taxes, and require prompt settle- 
ment for all the said taxes ; ( 14) to divide the county into three 
school-board districts, so that each will have as nearly as prac- 
ticable the same number of legal voters, and so that no election 
district will be divided; (15) to change the boundaries of such 
districts; (16) to call an election, upon the petition of one- 
fourth of the legal voters of any subdivision of the county, for 
creating or abolishing a special-tax school district; (17) to re- 
move any district trustee for failure to discharge his duties ; 
(18) to fill all vacancies occurring in the district boards of 

30 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 347, 349, 400, and 407 ; Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., 
Regs. 5, 16, and 17; Laws of Florida, 1911, Chap. 6163, Sec. i; Laws of 
1915, Chaps. 6828 and 6833; Laws of 1917, Chap. ^Z^^, Sec. 7; Laws of 
1919, Chap. 7808, Sec. 5, and Chap. 7916, Sec. i ; and Laws of 1921, Chap. 
8546. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 221 

trustees; (19) to subdivide the county into convenient ancj per- 
manent school districts, and restrict the attendance of pupils to 
the school within their own districts; (20) to furnish free text- 
books to all children not over fifteen years of age who are finan- 
cially unable to procure them; (21) to borrow money at a rate 
of interest not to exceed eight per cent per annum for the pur- 
pose of paying the legitimate expenses incurred in operating 
the schools; (22) to employ county agents to conduct practical 
farm- and home-demonstration work; (23) to establish and 
maintain vocational schools, departments, or classes, giving in- 
struction of less than college grade; (24) to appoint all school- 
attendance officers, fix their compensation, and remove those who 
fail to perform their duties; and (25) to acquire lands for use 
in farm-demonstration work. 

Local School Supervisors. — The various schools have a local 
school supervisor, who is appointed by the county board of 
public instruction upon the recommendation of the patrons ot 
the school and the nomination of the county superintendent.^^ 
The duties of this officer are:^^ (i) to supervise the work of 
the school, and report monthly to the county board of public 
instruction; (2) to oversee the erection, rental, repair, and im- 
provement of the school buildings, grounds, equipment, and sup- 
plies; (3) to procure a copy of the school laws, decisions, and 
regulations for the use of the teachers and for his own instruc- 
tion; (4) to co-operate with the teachers in elevating the con- 
dition of the school; and (5) to review all suspensions of pupils, 
and report the same at once to the county superintendent. 

Administrative Unit. — The unit for educational administration 
is the county.^^ All the schools in each county, even those of 
the cities, are under the direction and control of one county 
board of public instruction. However, for purposes of local 
school supervision, the various counties are subdivided, the sub- 
divisions being designated as school districts. As stated above, 
each school district is under the supervision of a local school 
supervisor, who is appointed by the board of public instruction 
of the county. School districts which levy a school-district tax 

31 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 3, and Sec. 351, Para. 5. 

32 Ibid., Sec. 352. 

33 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 399. 



222 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

are known as special-tax school districts.^* As we shall see be- 
low, these are under the supervision of a district board of trus- 
tees, who, though not appointed by the county board of public 
instruction, must, like the local school supervisors, be governed 
in the discharge of its duties by the rules and regulations of 
this board.^^ 

Special-Tax School Districts. — Upon the petition of one-fourth 
of the resident tax-paying electors of any city, incorporated town, 
community, or other subdivision of a county, the county board 
of public instruction must order an election to be held therein, 
at such time and p;lace as it may direct, for the purpose of de- 
termining whether such subdivision shall become a special-tax 
school district.^*' However, the board may change the bounda- 
ries designated in the petition, but in no case may it include 
territory not already included, and must give notice of any such 
change in its notice of the election. ^^ At such election there are 
three questions to be voted on : ( i ) whether a district school- 
tax shall be levied; (2) how many mills shall be levied for the 
two succeeding years; and (3) who shall be the school trustees 
of the district. These are determined by majority of the ballots 
cast by the legal voters, except that the three persons receiving 
the highest number are declared the district trustees.^^ Any 
subdivision formed into a special-tax school district continues 
as such until abolished or changed in the same way that it was 
formed,^^ but no district having any outstanding indebtedness 
can be abolished until the payment of such indebtedness has been 
provided for.^^ In 1919-20 there were 883 special-tax school 
districts in the state.** 

Consolidated Special-Tax School Districts. — There is also a 
very recent law — quite similar to the one above — which makes 
provision for the consolidation of two or more contiguous special- 

^* Schools of the said districts are known as special-tax schools. 

35 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 408; also Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Regs. 25 
and 28. 

36 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 400. 

^"^ Ibid., Sec. 401; and Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8555. 

38 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. S389. 

3» See Gen. Stats., Sec. 401 ; and Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8555. 

*o See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 122. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 223 

tax school districts.*^ It provides that upon the petition of one- 
fourth of the resident tax-paying voters of each of the districts 
proposed to be consoHdated the county board must order an 
election to determine (i) whether such districts shall be con- 
solidated into a single special-tax school ditsrict, (2) the millage 
to be levied, and (3) who shall be the school trustees; the 
matter of consolidation being determined by a majority vote, 
the number of mills to be levied by a plurality vote, and the 
trustees of the consolidated special-tax school district being the 
three persons receiving the highest number of votes. 

District Trustees. — As we have just seen, each special-tax 
school district is provided with a board of trustees consisting 
of three members. These are elected once every two years by 
the qualified electors of the district, the election being held as 
nearly as practicable on the anniversary of the original election 
creating the district, and under the direction of the county board 
of public instruction.*^ The position of local school supervisor is 
superseded by this board of trustees when a school district be- 
comes a special-tax district. Hence, it is required to perform the 
duties prescribed by law for the supervisors.*^ In addition, it is 
directed and empowered as follows : ** ( i ) to nominate teachers 
for all the schools; (2) to direct the application of the school 
funds of the district; (3) to prepare annually an itemized finan- 
cial statement of the amount of money required for school pur- 
poses for the next ensuing year, certifying therein the rate of 
millage voted by the district to be assessed and collected for that 
year, and file a copy of the statement with the board of county 
commissioners, the state comptroller,*^ and the county board of 
public instruction; and (4) to permit non-resident children to 
attend the schools of the district. 

School-Attendance Officers. — Each county has at least one 
school-attendance officer, who is appointed by the county board 

41 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7913. 

*2 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 10 ; and Gen. Stats., 
Sec. 406. 

*3 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 407 ; also Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 28. 

4* See Gen. Stats., Sees. 407-10 and 415. 

45 If there are any railroads or telegraph lines in the district. 



224 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

of public instruction,*^ and charged with the following powers 
and duties:*^ (i) to take an annual census of all children be- 
tween seven and eighteen years old, and file a copy thereof with 
the county and the state superintendent; (2) to serve notice 
of the illegal non-attendance at school of any child upon the 
parents or persons in parental relation thereto, and see that 
the child attends school as provided by law; (3) to furnish the 
principals and teachers in charge of the various schools with 
the names of all children in their respective districts who are 
required to attend school; (4) to enter any office, factory, or 
business houses for the purpose of determining whether or not 
any children are employed therein who should be attending 
school; (5) to make and file complaint in court against any 
person or persons violating the compulsory school-attendance 
law; (6) to perform such other duties as may be required of 
him by the county superintendent of public instruction; and 
(7) to keep a record of all services rendered, and make an an- 
nual report of the same to the county board of public instruction. 

II. School Population and Attendance 

Age Limits. — The public free schools of the State are open 
for the instruction of all children between six and twenty-one 
years of age,*^ and kindergartens may be established and main- 
tained by county boards of public instruction or district boards 
of trustees for the instruction of children below six years of 
age.*^ 

School Census. — A correct census of all the children in each 
county between the ages of six and twenty-one years, with a 
statement of those who are idiotic, insane, blind, or deaf, must 
be taken by the county superintendent of public instruction be- 
fore the fifteenth day of May in every year exactly divisible by 
ten, and reported to the school board of the county and the 
state superintendent on or before the first day of June of that 
year. Should he employ anyone to assist him in taking such 
census, the person or persons must make a sworn statement as 

*6 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7808, Sec. 5. 

^Ubid., Sees. 6-1 1. 

48 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 313 and 314. 

*'^ See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. S387. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 225 

to the time and place of the same, and such statement must be 
filed with the county school-board as part of his report. His 
compensation for the performance of the duties herein required 
of him is three cents for each child included in the enumeration. 
The penalty for his failure to perform them is removal from 
office.^^ 

In addition, an accurate census of all the children in each 
county between seven and eighteen years of age must be taken in 
triplicate by the school-attendance officer or officers thereof dur- 
ing the month of June of every year; the said census including 
the following data for every child in the county: (i) name, 
(2) sex, (3) age and date of birth, (4) distance from the 
nearest school, (5) school grade completed, and (6) name of 
parent (father gr mother), guardian, or other person standing 
in parental relation, with the post-office address thereof ; and, 
on or before the first day of July of the year in which such 
census is taken, one copy thereof must be filed with the county 
superintendent of public instruction, one with the state superin- 
tendent, and one retained by the attendance officer or officers.^^ 

Separation of the Races. — Separate schools are maintained by 
the different counties for children of the negro race.^^ In fact, 
it is unlawful to conduct any public, private, or parochial school 
wherein white persons and negroes are instructed or boarded 
in the same building or taught in the same class. Any person 
violating this provision is subject to a fine of not less than one 
hundred fifty nor more than five hundred dollars or imprison- 
ment in the county jail of not less thafi three nor more than 
six months.^^ Also, it is unlawful for white teachers to teach 
in negro schools or for negro teachers to teach in white schools. 
Anyone violating this provision is subject to a fine not exceeding 
five hundred dollars or imprisonment in the county jail not ex- 
ceeding six months.^* 

so See Gen. Stats., Sec. 351, Para. 12. 

51 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7808, Sec. 6. 

52 The constitution requires this. However, it also requires that the 
negro children shall be given equal educational advantages with the chil- 
dren of the white race (Art. XII, Sec. 12). 

53 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6490. 
5-1 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6490. 



226 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

Suspension from School. — Any teacher may suspend pupils for 
ten days on account of gross immorality, misconduct, or per- 
sistent violation of the regulations, giving immediate notice to 
the parents or persons standing in loco parentis, and to the local 
school supervisor, of the suspension and the cause thereof. ^^ 

Place of Attendance. — The attendance of pupils in each county 
is restricted to the school within their own school district, unless 
allowed elsewhere in the county by special permission or regu- 
lation of the county board of public education.®*^ But non-res- 
ident pupils of any of the special-tax school districts may attend 
school therein only by securing the consent of the district trustees, 
and also by' paying a pro rata share of the cost.^'^ However, 
all pupils of the county who are qualified may attend the county 
high school.^® The children who desire to attend school in an 
adjacent county in the State may do so by the concurrence of 
the superintendents of the two counties, provided the pro rata 
share of cost is paid by the school board of the county in which 
the children reside ; ^^ and children living in any county bordering 
on Alabama or Georgia who desire to attend school in an ad- 
joining county therein may do so, if suitable arrangements are 
made by the board of public instruction of their county with 
the school authorities of the other state.^^ 

Time and Term. — The dates for opening and closing the school 
terms in the various counties are fixed by the county board of 
education,**** but at least four months of instruction in each year 
must be provided. *^^ However, none of the schools can open 
before the first day of July of the school year to which that 
term of school belongs,**" and all of them must close by the last 
day of June.**^ Any school failing to complete its required term 
of four months by that date forfeits its proportion of the finan- 

^^ See Gen. Stats., Sec. 379, Para. 5. 

56 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 17. 

^'^ See Gen. Stats., Sec. 415. 

5s Ibid., Sec. 325. 

50 See Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8546. 

60 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 316. 

61 Ibid., Sec. 347, Para. 2. 
^^ Ibid., Sec. 315. 

63 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 316. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 227 

cial apportionment unless the time lost is made up the ensuing 
year.''* 

School Holidays. — The following are designated as school 
holidays : Independence Day, Thanksgiving Day, and the period 
from December 24 to January i, inclusive. On these days all 
the schools that are in session at the time are required to close, 
and none of the days can be counted as taught in the teacher's 
monthly report.^^ 

Meaning of School Year, Term, Month, and Day. — The school 
year for all public schools extends from July i to June 30 of 
the ensuing year, and all reports to the state department of 
education must embrace only such matters as take place within 
these limits.^'' A school day comprises not less than five nor 
more than six hours, exclusive of recesses, the exact length 
in each county being determined by the county board.*^^ A school 
month consists of twenty days, excluding holidays^^ and the first 
and last days of the week.*^^ A school term contains four school 
months ; ^"^ and a school year,*^^ two school terms.*''^ 

Compulsory Attendance.^^ — All children in the State between 
seven and sixteen years of age are required to attend a public 
school each year for the full term for which the school is in 
session. However, the following classes of children are ex- 
empted from this requirement: (i) children who are properly 
instructed in a private or parochial school, or at home by a 
competent person, satisfactory proof of such instruction being 
furnished the county superintendent; (2) children who are men- 
tally or physically incapacitated to perform school duties, the 
proof of such incapacity being submitted to the school-attendance 
officer; (3) children who have completed the grammar-school 
grades ; (4) children whose services are needed for the support 
of a widowed mother or other dependent person, such depen- 
dency being proven to the satisfaction of the attendance officer; 
(5) children under ten years of age who reside more than two 
miles, and children over ten who reside more than three miles, 

^* Ibid., Sec. 327. 

65 Ibid., Sec. 318. 

^^Ibid., Sec. 314. 

^Ubid., Sec. 317. 

^^ As is seen, the term " school year " is used in two different senses. 

69 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 



228 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

from a school, unless free transportation is furnished; (6) chil- 
dren whose parents or guardians are unable to provide the nec- 
essary books and clothing, unless such books and clothing are 
provided by some other means; and (7) children who are ex- 
empted by the attendance officer for unusual causes. Also, oc- 
casional absences from such attendance, not exceeding four school 
days per month, may be allowed. 

Every person in charge of a child within the compulsory 
school-attendance ages, and not properly excused from attend- 
ance at school for some one or more of the above-mentioned 
exemptions, must require such child to attend school regularly dur- 
ing the full time the public school is in session ; and, on conviction 
for failing to do so, may be fined not more than five dollars 
for each offense ; '^^ and for failure to pay such fine may be 
imprisoned not exceeding five days. However, any person in 
charge of a child within the compulsory school-attendance ages 
who presents satisfactory proof that he or she is unable to compel 
such child to attend school may be exempted from the penalties 
as regards non-attendance of such child; and such child, if a 
boy, may be committed to the Florida Industrial School for Boys, 
and if a girl, to the Florida Industrial School for Girls. 

The principal or teacher having charge of any public school 
is required to keep an accurate record of the attendance and 
non-attendance of all children enrolled therein, and report the 
non-attendance of any child to the school-attendance officer on 
Friday of each week during the school term, together with the 
reason therefor, if known ; and for failure to do so his or her 
certificate may be revoked by the state superintendent of public 
instruction upon satisfactory proof of such failure. Also private 
teachers and principals or teachers of private or parochial schools 
are required to keep a record of the attendance of children so 
as to enable the county superintendent to verify a child's at- 
tendance. 

As already pointed out,"^ the execution of the compulsory 
school-attendance law in each county is entrusted to the school- 

■^0 Each day a child remains away from school after being notified by 
the attendance officer constitutes a separate ofifense. All fines collected 
are paid into the county school-fund of the county in which collected. 

''^ See pages 223-24. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 229 

attendance officer, who, failing to perform his duties, may be 
removed from office by the county board of public instruction. 

All notices, forms, and blanks to be used in carrying out the 
provisions of this law are prescribed by the state superintendent 
and furnished by the county boards of the different counties. 

Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Pupils. — The 
law expressly forbids the establishment of schools, for the same 
race, nearer than three miles of each other, except for some local 
necessity."^ Hence, the state board of education has made it the 
duty of the county boards of the counties in which such schools 
are maintained to combine two or more schools into one, when 
practicable, or otherwise re-arrange them sO' as to conform to the 
three-mile limit. '^^ However, thus far there have been no statu- 
tory provisions looking either to the consolidation of schools or 
the transportation of pupils. Nevertheless, the movement along 
both these lines is making considerable progress. In 1919-20 
the system of transporting pupils to and from school at public 
expense was in operation in 50 of the 54 counties, a total of 
7,966 pupils being transported, and $216,689 spent for this pur- 
pose.'^* 

HI. The System of Public Instruction 

Extent. — The public-school system of Florida is one continu- 
ous school system, extending from the elementary school to and 
through the state university. However, the uniform system of 
public free schools consists of only twelve consecutive school 
years of instruction.'^^ 

Classification of the Public Free Schools. — There are two 
classes of public free schools — elementary and secondary. The 
elementary-, or common-school, system embraces the first eight 
years of instruction, each year being designated as a grade. The 
first two grades are commonly known as primary ; third to sixth, 
intermediate ; and seventh and eight, grammar grades.'^^ The 
secondary-, or high-school, system embraces the ninth, tenth, 

■^2 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 6. 

" See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 15. 

■^^ See page 116, above. 

''^ See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5382, Sec. I ; also Gen. Stats., 
Sec. 386. 

'^^ See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5382, Sees. 2-3 ; also Gen. Stats., 
Sees. 387-88. 



230 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

eleventh, and twelfth years of instruction. Schools which offer 
the first two are called junior high schools; the first three, in- 
termediate; and all four, senior J" 

Elementary-School Instruction. — As has been pointed out ear- 
lier,'^^ the elementary- and high-school courses of instruction pre- 
pared in 1918 by the commission appointed by State Superinten- 
dent Sheats have been adopted by the State. The courses of 
instruction for elementary schools include the subjects required 
by law, and also those which may be required by the various 
county boards of education where facilities for teaching are 
offered. The subjects required by law are reading, writing, 
number work, language, arithmetic, grammar, spelling, history, 
geography, physiology, hygiene and sanitation, civil government, 
agriculture, and morals and manners ; and those that may be 
required by the county boards are hand work, manual training, 
home economics, nature study, music, drawing, and physical cul- 
ture.'^^ The following is an outline of the program of studies 
by grades.®^ 

Outline of the State Program of Studies for Elementary Schools 
outline for the first grade 



Subjects 


Alternating w-ith j 


Days per week ' 


Condition 


Reading 




5 


R 


Number Work 




5 


R 


Language 




5 


R 


Spelling 




5 


R 


Nature Study- 


Hygiene 


2 


R 


Hygiene 


Nature Study 


3 


R 


Drawing 


Hand Work 


3 





Hand work 


Drawing 


2 





Music 




2 





Writing 




5 


R 


Morals and Manners ^2 






R 



■^■^ See supra, pp. 132-33- 
■** See pages Ii8r-i9. 

'^^ See Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools of Florida 
(rearranged edition; authorized by Chap. 7910, Acts of 1919). PP- 6-10. 

80 For a presentation of this program in detail see Course of Study for 
Elementary and High Schools of Florida, pp. 14-169. 

81 That is, whether required by law (R), or optional with the county 
boards of education (O). 

82 This subject is given no regular place on the recitation schedule, but 
two or three periods of five or six minutes each are devoted to it every 
week at the opening exercises. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 



231 



OUTLINE FOR THE SECOND GRADE 



Subjects 


Alternating zvith 


Days p 


>er 


Week 


Conditions 


Reading 






5 




R 


Number Work 






5 




R 


Language 






5 




R 


Spelling 






5 




R 


Nature Study- 


Hygiene 




2 




R 


Hygiene 


Nature Study 




3 




R 


Drawing 


Hand Work 




3 







Hand Work 


Drawing 




2 







Music 






2 







Writing 






s 




R 


Morals and Manners ^^ 










R 



OUTLINE FOR THE THIRD GRADE 



Reading 


5 


R 


Number Work 


5 


R 


Language 


5 


R 


Spelling 


5 


R 


Nature Study and Home Ge- 




ography s* 


Hygiene 4 


R 


Hygiene 


N. Study and H. Geog. i 


R 


Drawing 


Hand Work 3 





Hand Work 


Drawing 2 





Music 


2 





Writing 


5 


R 


Morals and Manners ^^ 


R 



OUTLINE FOR THE FOURTH GRADE 



Reading 






5 


R 


Arithmetic 






5 


R 


Language 






5 


R 


Spelling 






5 


R 


Geography 


Hygiene 




4 


R 


Hygiene 


Geography 




I 


R 


Drawing 


Hand Work 




2 





Hand Work 


Drawing 




2 





Music 


Drawing and H. 


Work 


I 





Writing 






5 


R 


Morals and Manners ^^ 








R 



S3 See footnote eighty-two, above. 

8* Nature study and home geography are taught together. 



232 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



OUTLINE FOR THE FIFTH GRADE 



Subjects /. 


Uternating with Days per Week 


Conditions 


Reading 


5 


R 


Arithmetic 


S 


R 


Language 


5 


R 


Spelling 


5 


R 


Geography 


Hygiene 4 


R 


Hygiene 


Geography i 


R 


U. S. History 


5 


R 


Drawing 


Hand Work 2 





Hand Work 


Drawing 2 





Music 


Drawing and H. Work i 





Writing 


S 


R 


Morals and Manners ^^ 




R 


OUTLINE FOR THE SIXTH GRADE 




Reading 


Hygiene 3 


R 


Arithmetic 


5 


R 


Grammar 


5 


R 


Spelling 


5 


R 


Geography 


5 


R 


Florida History 


5 


R 


Hygiene 


Reading 2 


R 


Drawing 


Hand Work and Music i 





Hand Work 


Drawing and Music i 





Music 


Drawing and H. Work i 





Writing 


5 


R 


Morals and Manners ^^ 




R 


OUTLINE 


FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE ^^ 




Reading 


Sanitation 3 


R 


Arithmetic 


5 


R 


Grammar 


5 


R 


Spelling 


5 


R 


Geography 


5 


R 


U. S. History 


S 


R 


Sanitation 


Reading 2 


R 


Mechanical Drawing 


Manual Training 2 





Manual Training 


Mechanical Drawing 3 





Music 


Writing i 





Writing 


Music 4 


R 


Morals and Manners ^^^ 




R 



^5 See footnote eighty-two, above. 

^8 Home economics is not mentioned here, though a course of study in 
this subject is provided in the state curriculum. It is understood that in 
schools with facilities for offering the optional courses the girls will take 
home economics, or something else, while the boys will take manual 
training. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 



233 



OUTLINE FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE ^^ 



Subjects 


Alternating with 


Days 


per week 


Gondii: 


Reading 


Spelling 




2 


R 


Arithmetic 






5 


R 


Grammar 






5 


R 


Spelling 


Reading 




3 


R 


U. S. History 


Physiology 




3 


R 


Physiology 


U. S. History 




2 


R 


Civil Government 






5 


R 


Agriculture 






5 


R 


Mechanical Drawing 


Manual Training 


r 


2 





Manual Training 


Mechanical Drawing 


3 





Music 


Writing 




I 





Writing 


Music 




4 


R 


Morals and Manners ^^ 








R 



Secondary-School Instruction. — The course of instruction for 
high schools include English, history, advanced arithmetic, alge- 
bra, plane and solid geometry, plane trigonometry, general sci- 
ence, physiology, physical geography, botany, zoology, physics, 
chemistry, Latin. French, Spanish, social science, psychology, 
music, drawing, home economics, agriculture, manual training, 
commercial English, typewriting, shorthand, commercial arith- 
metic, and bookkeeping. The following is an outline of the 
program of studies by types of schools and years. 



Outline of the State Program of Studies for High Schools 

TWO-YEAR high-school CURRICULA 9° 



Classical Curriculum 



First Year 
English 
Algebra 
Latin 

Ancient History 
Drawing 
Music 



Second Year 
English 

Plane Geometry 
Algebra 
Latin 

American History and Civics 
Drawing 
Music 



^■^ See footnote eighty-six, above. 
8^ See footnote eighty-two, above. 

89 See Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools of Florida 
(rearranged edition; authorized by Chap. 7910, Acts of 1919), pp. 171-78. 

90 These curricula are for two-year high schools having at least one 
teacher giving full time to high-school subjects, but only one of them 
should be attempted. 



234 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



Scien tific Curriculum 



First Year 
English 
Algebra 

Physical Geography or General Sci- 
ence 
Ancient History 
Drawing 
Music 



Second Year 
English 

Plane Geometry or Algebra 
American History and Civics 
Zoology and Botany 
Drawing 
Music 



THREE- YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA ^^ 



First Year 
English 
Algebra 
Latin 

Ancient History 
Drawing 
Music 



Enghsh 
Algebra 
Physical Geography or 

General Science 
Ancient History 
Drawing 
Music 



Classical Curriculum 

Second Year 
English 

Plane Geometry or Al- 
gebra 
Latin 

Modern History 
Drawing 
Music 

Scientific Curriculum 

English 

Plane Geometry or Al- 
gebra 
Modern History 
Zoology and Botany 
Drawing 
Music 



Third Year 

English 

Plane Geometry or Al- 
gebra and Solid Ge- 
ometry 

American History and 
Civics 

Drawing 

Music 



English 

Plane Geometry or Al- 
gebra and Solid Ge- 
ometry 

Physics or Chemistry 

Drawing 

Music 



CURRICULUM FOR SMALL FOUR-YEAR HIGH SCHOOLS ^2 



First Year 


Second Year 


Third Year 


Fourth Year 


English 


English 


English 04 


English 94 


Algebra 


Algebra 


Plane Geometry 


Plane Trigonom- 


Latin 


Latin 1 ^ 
Botanv ^^"^ 
Zoology J t^^'^ 


Latin 


e t r y and 


Phys. Geog. or 


Physics or Chem- 


Arithmetic 


Gen. Science 


istry 


Latin or Physics 


History ^s 


History ^3 


English History 


or Chemistry 
American His- 
tory and Civ- 
ics 



91 These curricula are for three-year high schools having not less 
than two teachers giving full time to high-school subjects, but only one 
of them should be followed. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 



235 



FOUR- YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM ^^ 



First Year 



First Semester 
Required Subjects : 

English 

Algebra 

Ancient History 
One of the Following: 

Latin 

Physiology 

General Science 

Physical Geography 

Agriculture 

Home Economics 

Manual Training 

Commercial Arithmetic 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 



Second Semester 
Required Subjects : 

English 

Algebra 

Ancient History 
One of the Following: 

Latin 

Physiology 

General Science 

Physical Geography 

Agriculture 

Home Economics 

Manual Training 

Commercial Arithmetic 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 



Second Year 



Required Subjects: 

English 

Algebra or Plane Geometry 
Two of the Following: 

Latin 

Modern History 

Botany or Zoology 

Agriculture 

Home Economics 

Manual Training 

Commercial Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 



Required Subjects: 

English 

Algebra or Plane Geometry 
Two of the Following : 

Latin 

Modern History 

Botany or Zoology 

Agriculture 

Home Economics 

Manual Training 

Commercial Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 



^- Schools having at least two teachers who give their full time to 
high-school subjects and a principal who teaches not more than four 
classes daily. 

^^ First- and second-year classes in history are combined. 

^* Third- and fourth-year classes in English are combined. 

95 This is for four-year high schools having not less than four teachers 
besides the principal giving their full time to high-school subjects. 



236 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



Third Year 



First Semester 
Required Subjects: 

English 

Algebra or Plane Geometry 
Two of the Following: 

Latin 

French 

Spanish 

Chemistry or Physics 

Agriculture 

Home Economics 

Manual Training 

Commercial Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 



Second Semester 
Required Subjects: 

Enghsh 

Plane Geometry ^^ 
Two of the Following:"" 

Algebra 

Solid Geometry 

Latin 

French 

Spanish 

Chemistry or Physics 

Agriculture 

Home Economics 

Manual Training 

Commercial Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 



Fourth Year 



Required Subjects: 

English 

American History and Civics 
Two of the Following : 

Latin 

French 

Spanish 

Social Science or Psj'chology 

Chemistry or Physics 

Plane Trigonometry 

Manual Training 

Agriculture 

Commercial English 

Bookkeeping 

Typewriting 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 
Note. — One science is required 



Required Subjects: 

English 

American History and Civics 
Two of the Following: 

Latin 

French 

Spanish 

Social Science or Psychology 

Chemistry or Physics 

Solid Geometry or Arithmetic 

Manual Training 

Agriculture 

Commercial English 

Bookkeeping 

Typewriting 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 
during the four years. 



56 If not taken the second year. 
5^ Three if geometry is not taken. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 237 

Military Instruction and Training. — By act approved June 9, 
1919/^ the state board of education is empowered and directed to 
prescribe a course in military instruction and training to be used 
in high schools having an enrollment of twenty-five or more boys 
in and above the ninth grade, and to prescribe the kind of uni- 
form and equipment to be used by those taking the course. The 
board of education for each county is authorized to designate 
the school or schools in which such course may be maintained, 
and to procure the necessary equipment, giving security therefor 
when leased or borrowed from the Federal Government. The 
students taking this course are required to furnish their own 
uniforms. 

Vocational Education. — Any county board of public instruc- 
tion, or board of trustees of any school of less than college grade 
under public control, may make provision for instruction of 
less than college grade in home economics, agricultural pursuits, 
or trades and industries, and any such county board or board 
of trustees may use any moneys raised by taxation in the same 
way as moneys for other school purposes are used in establish- 
ing and maintaining public instruction of less than college grade.®" 
And, whenever any school offering such instruction has been or- 
ganized in accordance with the rules and regulations of the state 
board for vocational education, and approved by this board, it 
is entitled to share in the state and federal funds available for 
the promotion of vocational education^"" to an amount of at 
least fifty per cent of the moneys expended for the salaries of 
the teachers of vocational subjects therein.^'^'^ In 1918-19 there 
were sixteen such schools in the State^**- — one for trade and 
industrial work, five for home economics, and ten for agricul- 
ture.^°3 

98 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 79ii- 

99 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6833, Sees. 1-2; and Laws of 1919. 
Chap. 7592, Sec. 7. 

100 por the appropriations for 1917-21 see page 208, above. 

101 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7592, Sec. 8. 

102 As is shown above (pp. 140-49), there were other public schools 
which offered some instruction in vocational subjects. 

103 See An. Rep. of Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1919, p. 214; also Bien. Rep. 
of St. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 191 7-19, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 
1916-18, pp. 772-80. For a detailed outline of the first two years' work 



238 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

Special Types of Schools. — Provision is also made for some 
special types of schools. ^°* In the first place, there are three 
state institutions for special classes, namely, the Florida School 
for the Deaf and the Blind, at St. Augustine, the Florida Indus- 
trial School for Boys, at Marianna, and the Florida Industrial 
School for Girls, at Ocala. These schools are supported, for 
the most part, by state appropriations.^"^ The Florida School 
for the Deaf and the Blind is for the care, education, and main- 
tenance of all the blind and deaf-mutes of the State between 
six and twenty-one years old, admission thereto being granted 
upon certificate from any board of county commissioners. It 
is under the management of the state board of control.^"'' The 
other two institutions are reclamation schools for delinquent 
boys and girls, respectively, between the ages of ten and twenty- 
one. They are under the management of the board of commis- 
sioners of state institutions.^"^ The courses of instruction and 
training in all three of these schools are designed to meet the 
needs and abilities of the pupils therein. 

In the second place, county boards of education and boards 
of district trustees are authorized to establish and maintain 
kindergartens in connection with the schools under their direction 
and control ; provided, however, that the various communities 
shall guarantee the attendance of at least twenty-five kinder- 
garten pupils ; provided, further, that every kindergarten, when 
established, shall be under the supervision of the principal of 
the school with which it is connected ; and provided, still further, 
that no person shall be employed as principal of a kindergarten 
department who does not hold a certificate of graduation from 
a reputable kindergarten training school. 

And, in the third place, there is a very recent law — passed 
by the last legislature — which provides that wherever there are 

now required of these schools see Course of Study for Elementarj' and 
High Schools of Fl'orida (rearranged edition; authorized by Chap. 7910, 
Acts of 1919), pp. 178-213. 

i°* See pages 149-52, above. 

105 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6840, Sec. 13. 

1°^ See page 216, above. 

lo'^ This board is composed of the governor and the administrative of- 
ficers of the executive department. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 239 

fifteen children who, for any cause except mental or physical 
disability or the completion of the grammar grades, are exempted 
from regular school attendance at any school or schools three 
miles or less apart, and residing or employed within the regular 
attendance area of such school or schools, the county board of 
education is authorized and required to establish and maintain 
a part-time school or schools. Such school or schools must be 
in session at least one hundred forty-four hours each school 
year during regular employment hours, and furnish instruction 
in subjects designed to train the children for civic or vocational 
activities. ^°^ 

Higher and Professional Education. — In addition to the three 
state educational institutions mentioned above, the State main- 
tains three institutions for higher and professional education, — • 
the University of Florida, at Gainesville, the Florida State Col- 
lege for Women, at Tallahassee, and the Florida Agricultural 
and Mechanical College for Negroes, also situated at Tallahas- 
see, — which may be said to form the culmination of its public- 
school system. As in the case of the Florida School for the 
Deaf and the Blind, these are under the management of the state 
board of control. ^°^ They are supported mostly by state appro- 
priations and the income from federal grants. As to scope and 
quality of instruction they compare favorably with corresponding 
institutions in most of the other states.^^*^ 

IV. School Environment and Equipment 

Buildings and Sites. — The county boards of public instruction 
are authorized and directed to provide, as far as practicable, 
suitable school buildings and grounds, together with proper 
apparatus, for all children of school age residing within their 
respective counties and desiring to attend the public schools 
therein. ^^^ The site for each school must be healthful and pleas- 
ant; conveniently located for the accommodation of all children 
entitled to attend ; and contain at least one-half acre in the rural 

108 See Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8550. 

109 For the powers and duties of this board see page 216, above. 

110 For this scope of instruction see pages 163-68, above. 

111 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Paras. 2 and 5. 



240 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

districts, and as nearly that amount as is practicable in the 
urban.^^^ Should the school board of any county fail to supply 
such accommodations, the county forfeits its proportion of the 
state school-funds during such neglect.^^^ 

Upon the request of the county board of public instruction 
of any county, after an affirmative vote of the qualified tax- 
paying electors thereof, the board of county commissioners may 
contract debts to provide school buildings and grounds, and bor- 
row money to discharge any debt incurred by the purchase of 
real estate for such purpose. ^^* In addition, any special-tax 
school district, by a majority vote of its legal voters, at an elec- 
tion ordered by the county board of public instruction on petition 
of one-fourth of the voters of the said district,^^^ may issue 
bonds for any exclusive use of its public schools.^^^ However, 
if the bonds are for building purposes, the county board must, 
upon the recommendation of the school trustees of the district, 
perpare plans and specifications for the contract for constructing 
the same.^^'^ 

Every teacher is directed to see that the school building in 
which he or she teaches, and all appurtenances belonging thereto, 
are not unnecessarily injured.^^^ Whoever injures such property 
without cause may be punished by imprisonment of not more 
than one year or by fine of not more than five hundred dollars.^^® 
And whoever places any obscene word, image or device on such 
property may be imprisoned not exceeding fifteen days or fined 
not exceeding one hundred dollars ; however, this does not apply 
to pupils subject to the discipline of the school.^-*' 

112 Ibid., Sec. 347, Para. 4. 
^^^Ibid., Sec. 326. 
^'^^ Ibid., Sec. 324. 

115 Except when the district is located wholly or partially in cities of 
25,000 population, or more, according to the recent federal census, in 
which case the petition may be dispensed with and the proposition of is- 
suing the said bonds may be initiated by the county board of public in- 
struction or by the trustees of the district, or by both bodies (see Laws 
of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8543). 

116 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6542. 
ii'^ See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6967. 
118 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 379, Para. 3- 

119 /&id.. Sec. 3430. 
120 /Hi., Sec. 3541. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 241 

All public-school buildings of two or more stories in height 

must be provided with adequate stairways or fire escapes by 

the board of public instruction of the county in which such 

building or buildings are located.^^^ The state superintendent 

is directed to formulate and prescribe tactics of instruction for 

fire drills for all the pubHc schools of the State, and each teacher 

is required to instruct the pupils of his or her school in such 
drills.121 

Health Regulations. — There are five provisions looking to the 
promotion of the health of the pupils: (i) the school buildings 
must be located only in healthful places ;^^^ (2) they must be 
provided with sanitary toilets ; ^-^ (3) a course of instruction 
in hygiene must be offered in the primary and intermediate 
grades;^-* (4) the teachers are directed to require all pupils 
under their control to observe personal cleanliness ; ^^^ and (5) 
the state board of health is directed to make adequate provision 
for the physical examination of all school children in the State, 
every child being examined at least once each year.^^^ 

Textbooks. — The board of commissioners of state institutions, 
which is constituted a state textbook commission, is authorized 
and directed to select and adopt a uniform system of textbooks 
for the elementary and high schools of the State ; ^^^ provided, 
however, that all books must first be submitted to a subcom- 
mission, which is composed of seven members appointed by the 
governor upon the nomination of the state superintendent of 
public instruction, and which is directed to examine all books 
submitted and to report on the same to the commission, indi- 
cating first choice, second choice, and on down to the fifth choice, 
for each subject; provided, further, that the said commission 
is authorized and directed to adopt one basal and not more than 
two supplementary texts on each high-school subject ; provided, 

121 See Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5937- 

122 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 4- 

123 See Laws of Florida, 191 5, Chap. 6836. 

124 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 389-90. 

125 Ibid., Sec. 379, Para. 2. 

126 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6829. 

127 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7374; Laws of 1921, Chap. 8500; 
also supra, pp. 175-78- 



242 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

still further, that none of such textbooks shall contain anything 
of a partisan or sectarian character; and provided, still further, 
that all adoptions must be for eight years. Such books must 
be introduced and used as textbooks to the exclusion of all 
others in all public free schools of the State. However, supple- 
mentary books may be used, and books on a higher branch than 
those required by law ; provided, that the supplementary books 
are prescribed by the commission, and that the higher branch 
is not taught to the exclusion of the required branches. 

The county boards of public instruction are required to furnish 
free of cost the textbooks necessary for the use of all indigent 
children in their respective counties who are not over fifteen 
years of age; provided, however, that when the children reside 
in a special-tax school district the cost of such books must be 
charged against and paid for out of the funds credited to the 
district.^^^ 

V. The Teaching Staff 

Examination and Certification. — No person is permitted to teach 
in any of the public free schools of the State who does not hold a 
valid teacher's certificate covering the subject or subjects taught. 
There are in all fifteen different forms which may be issued, — 
temporary, courtesy temporary, primary, third-, second-, and 
first-grade, special, state, life primary, life first-grade, life state, 
graduate first-grade, graduate special, graduate state, and life 
graduate state, — all of which are valid in any part of the State, 
and for the time specified, though any of them may be suspended 
or revoked by a county superintendent of public instruction, or 
by the state superintendent upon his own motion, or upon the 
recommendation of the state board of examiners, where the 
holder proves incompetent, unsuccessful or grossly immoral.^-° 
As has been stated earlier,^^° all examinations that are required 
for the issuance of certificates are conducted by the state board 
of examiners. 

128 See Laws of Florida, 191 1, Chap. 6163. 

129 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372; and Laws of 1919, Chaps. 
7373, 7914, and 7942. 

130 See supra, pp. 192 and 217. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 243 

A temporary certificate may be issued without examination by 
the state superintendent of public instruction upon the request 
of a county superintendent in an emergency ; provided, however, 
that it shall be valid only until the state board of examiners 
shall hold an examination within the county, or an adjacent 
county, in which the holder of the certificate is employed. A 
courtesy temporary certificate, valid for two months, may be 
issued by the state superintendent to any person holding a valid 
teacher's certificate issued in another state, when such holder 
is endorsed by the superintendent of the county wherein he or 
she has been employed to teach. A primary certificate, valid for 
four years in the first three grades of regular graded schools 
of four teachers or more, may be issued to persons who have 
received special instruction for at least one year in primary 
methods and practice teaching in a recognized normal school, 
or its equivalent, and passed an examination on the required 
branches. The third-, second-, and first-grade certificates, valid 
for one, three, and five years, respectively, may be issued to per- 
sons who have passed a satisfactory examination on the required 
branches. A special certificate, valid for teaching only the sub- 
ject or subjects covered by it, and for a period of five years, 
is issuable to applicants who have shown ability in teaching one 
or more subjects not embraced in the requirements for a second- 
grade certificate, and made a grade of ninety per cent in an 
examination on all the subjects covered by the same. A state 
certificate, valid for five years, is issuable only to applicants who 
have had twenty-four months of successful experience in teach- 
ing, and made an average grade of eighty-five per cent, with 
none below sixty, in an examination on geometry, trigonometry, 
physics, botany, zoology, Latin, rhetoric, English literature, psy- 
chology, and general history. A life primary certificate, valid 
during the life of the holder in the primary department of any 
public school, may be granted to any holder of a valid primary 
certificate who has taught successfully under such certificate for 
a period of thirty-two months in the primary department of a 
regular graded school of not less than four teachers. A life 
first-grade certificate, valid for life, may be granted to any holder 



244 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

of a valid first-grade certificate who has taught twenty years in 
the pubHc free schools of the State, the last ten being on first- 
grade certificates ; or to any holder of two first-grade certificates, 
each with an average grade of at least ninety per cent and the 
last one valid, who has taught six years on the two certificates 
held ; or to any holder of a first-grade certificate who has had 
such certificate extended three times by attendance at either of 
the state summer schools,^^^ and has taught six years on the 
certificate held. A life state certificate of perpetual validity 
may be granted to any applicant who holds a valid state certifi- 
cate, has taught successfully in a high school or college of the 
State for eighteen months on such certificate, and has the en- 
dorsement of three holders of life state certificates as possessing 
eminent ability both as a teacher and a disciplinarian. A grad- 
uate state certificate is issuable to graduates of the normal and 
collegiate departments of the University of Florida and the Flor- 
ida State College for Women, and of any chartered college or 
university which meets the requirements of the state board of 
education and the state board of control; provided, that such 
graduates have taken three-twentieths of the work required for 
graduation in psychology and education, and during their junior 
and senior years made a general average of not less than eighty- 
five per cent on all subjects pursued and completed, with no 
grade below sixty.^^^ Graduate first-grade, graduate special, and 
also graduate state certificates may be issued to persons who 
have graduated since June 15, 1905, from any standard univer- 
sity, college, or normal school requiring four years of work for 
graduation, and have had twenty-four months of successful ex- 
perience in teaching since graduating, the form of certificate 
issued being determined by a commission consisting of the state 
superintendent and the president and dean of the normal de- 
partment of the Florida State College for Women. And finally, 

131 See page 191, above, for the provision in regard to the extension of 
certificates. 

132 However, in lieu of such time devoted to the study of psychology 
and education, twenty-four months' teaching experience in the public 
schools of the State may be accepted (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 
8544). 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 245 

a life graduate state certificate of perpetual validity may be issued 
without examination by the state superintendent to any teacher 
holding a graduate state certificate who has taught successfully 
in the State for twenty-four months on a graduate state certifi- 
cate, and has the endorsement of three holders of life certificates 
as showing eminent ability in teaching and school government. 

By very recent legislation/^^ any applicant filing with the state 
superintendent a valid teacher's certificate from another state 
whose requirements are similar and fully equal to those of 
Florida are entitled to a Florida teacher's certificate of like 
grade, and the state superintendent is authorized and directed 
to issue the same; provided, first, that the certificate filed for 
substitution is equivalent to and not lower in grade than a Flor- 
ida first-grade or state certificate; second, that the applicant 
presents satisfactory evidence of having graduated from an ap- 
proved four-year high school, and, in addition, of having com- 
pleted from two to four years' work in a standard college or 
normal school; and, further, that he or she furnishes satis- 
factory evidence of good moral character and of having taught 
successfully for twenty-four months, submits a health certificate 
signed by a reputable practicing physician, and pays a fee of 
five dollars. Such certificate is valid for teaching in any public 
school of the State for a period of three years from its date, 
but in no grade above the tenth unless the applicant has com- 
pleted four years' work in a standard college or normal school, 
in which case it is valid for teaching in all the high-school 
grades. Moreover, all substituted certificates have all the rights 
and benefits as to life extension conveyed to the holders of sim- 
ilar certificates obtained by examination in the State, and are 
likewise subject to revocation. However, such certificates can 
be issued only to applicants from states which extend to Florida 
certificate holders these same privileges. 

Appointment and Tenure. — The board of public instruction in 
each county is authorized and directed to appoint the teachers 
for every public free school of the county ;^^* provided, however, 

133 See Laws of Florida, 1921, Chaps. 85 11 and 8542. 

134 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 6; and Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., 
Reg. 8. 



246 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

that in special-tax school districts the trustees shall have the 
power to nominate the teachers ; ^^^ provided, further, that in 
case of a vacancy in the teaching staff of any school between 
the regular meetings of the county board the county superin- 
tendent shall have the power to fill the same, subject to the 
ratification of the board at its next regular meeting ; ^^^ that in 
case of a leave of absence, not exceeding three days, the teacher 
on leave may secure a substitute, subject to the approval of the 
principal, the county superintendent, the trustees, or the local 
supervisor ; ^^^ and that in case of a leave of absence of more 
than three days a substitute shall be secured by the county board, 
the county superintendent, or the trustees ; ^^^ and provided, still 
further, that no teacher shall be appointed for a term of service 
extending beyond his or her certificate. ^^^ 

Salaries and General Duties. — The county boards of public 
instruction are also authorized and directed to contract with and 
pay the salaries of the teachers of their respective counties ; ^*° 
provided, however, that no board shall contract with or pay 
any person for services as a teacher v/ho does not hold a valid 
teacher's certificate ; ^" provided, further, that no board shall 
issue a warrant to any teacher unless his or her monthly report 
is made on the blanks furnished and according to direction ; ^*^ 
and provided, still further, that a substitute teacher, if employed 
for not exceeding three days, shall be paid by the teacher whose 
place he or she has taken ;^*^ and if employed for more than 
three days, by the county board or the trustees ; ^** and that all 
teachers absent without leave shall forfeit their pay during such 
absence, and also those absent on leave, if they are away over 
three days.^*^ 

135 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 408. 

136 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 24. 

137 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 381. 
138/HJ., Sec. 382. 

139 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 18. 

!*<' See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 6. 

1*1 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372, Sec. r. 

142 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 6. 

1*3 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 381. 

'-^^Ihid., Sec. 383. 

^^^Ihid., Sec. 382. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 247 

The general duties of every teacher are as follows:"^ (i) to 
labor faithfully and earnestly for the advancement of the pupils 
in their studies and moral development; (2) to require the pupils 
to keep clean, observe good manners, and refrain from bad 
habits; (3) to see that the school property is not unnecessarily 
injured; (4) to enforce needful restrictions upon the conduct 
of pupils in the school building and on the grounds, but avoiding 
at all times unnecessary severity and measures of punishment; 
(5) to suspend pupils for ten days on account of gross immor- 
ality, misconduct, or persistent violation of the rules, giving im- 
mediate notice to the parents or guardians and to the local school 
supervisor; (6) to hold a public examination at the close of 
each term; (7) to commemorate Mother's Day^*^ with appro- 
priate exercises ; ^*^ (8) to make a monthly report to the county 
superintendent of public instruction; (9) to deliver the keys and 
all school property to the supervisor on suspending or closing 
the school; and (10) to conform at all times to the regulations 
of the state department of education.^*^ 

Training and Supervision. — For the professional training of 
teachers the State maintains a normal school and college of edu- 
cation in both the state institutions of higher learning for the 
white race and a normal department in the one for negroes.^^** 
In addition, it maintains a summer school at each of the three 
higher educational institutions,^''^ and helps to maintain a county 
teacher-training department in several of the high schools.^^^ 
For the maintenance of these summer schools and teacher-train- 
ing departments the State makes annual appropriations.^^^ 

There are also provisions for the supervisory oversight of the 
teachers. As we have seen, there are three state supervisors — 
one for the high schools and two for the elementary rural schools. 
These, of course, endeavor to supervise all the teachers of the 

1*6 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 379. 

1*7 The first Friday in November of each year. 

148 See Laws of Florida, 1911, Chap. 6204. 

1*9 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 384. 

150 See supra, pp. 163-68 and 182. 

^^''■Ibid., pp. 193-94 

152 Ibid., pp. 183-88. 

153 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chaps. 7279 and 7371. 



248 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

type of work. For the most part, it is done by the county 
superintendents and the local school supervisors. However, there 
are a few counties which employ an assistant county superin- 
tendent to give additional supervision. 

VI. Revenue for the Support of Public Free Schools 

Sources of School Revenue. — The public free schools draw 
their support almost entirely from five sources — the interest 
on a permanent state school-fund, a state property tax, county 
and district property taxes, and poll taxes. The State has a 
permanent school-fund^^* which, at last report,^^^ was $1,877,880. 
In addition, it levies an annual tax of one mill on the dollar 
of all taxable property therein.^''*' The receipts from these two 
state sources in 1919-20 amounted to $427,507 — $68,338 from 
the former and $359,169 from the latter^^'^ — or about 7 per 
cent of the total income for that year.^^® 

Each county is required to levy annually a tax of not less 
than three nor more than ten mills on the dollar of all taxable 
property in the same,^^'' and a special capitation tax of one 
dollar upon each male inhabitant between twenty-one and fifty- 
five years of age who has not lost a limb in battle.^^'' The re- 
ceipts from these two county sources in 1919-20 amounted to 
$3»396,767— $3,251,336 on property and $i4543i on polls^^— 
or 54 per cent of the total income for schools.^^® 

Furthermore, any special-tax school district, of which there 
were 883 at last report,^*'- may levy an annual property tax up to 
three mills on the dollar ;^^^ and, if bonds have been issued for 

154 For its sources see Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 4. 

155 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 40. 

156 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 6. 

157 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 124. 

158 Excluding receipts from loans, bond sales, and balance on hand 
from school year 1918-19. 

159 See Laws Relating to Education Enacted by the Florida Legisla- 
ture of 1917 and 1919 (compiled by W. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of 
PubHc Instruction, 1919), p. i. 

160 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 508. 

161 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, pp. 120-21. 

162 Ihid., p. 122. 

163 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 10; and Gen. Stats., 
Sees. 410-13. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 249 

the exclusive use of public free schools, it may levy an additional 
tax up to five mills for the purpose of paying the interest on 
State. Moreover, each county makes some provision for this 
such bonds and of creating a sinking fund for the payment of 
the principal at maturity of the same.^^* Hence, a special-tax 
district may levy as much as eight mills on the dollar of all 
taxable property therein. In 1919-20 the revenue from district 
taxation was $1,419,130/*^° or 23 per cent of the entire school 
income.^®'^ 

The remainder of the revenue for the support of public free 
schools comes from quite a number of sources ; ^^"^ for example, 
dividends, interest on bank deposits and loans, sale of bonds, 
collections for payment of bonds, fines and forfeitures, and tui- 
tion of non-resident pupils.^"^ In 1919-20 the revenue from 
these minor sources was $1,011,896,^*'^ or 16 per cent of the entire 
revenue.^'^*' 

Apportionment of the School Revenue. — The annual income 
from the permanent school-fund, together with the annual state 
school-tax of one mill, is apportioned to the various counties^^" 
by the state superintendent of public instruction on the average 
daily attendance at school for the preceding year.^" The moneys 
received from these two sources by the several counties, and 
also those raised or collected by them for school purposes, are 
disbursed in each county by the county board of education, as 
it sees fit, for the maintenance of the public free schools."^ 
And the school funds of the special-tax school districts, which 
are derived, for the most part, from district taxes, are appor- 

164 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6542 ; Laws of 1915, Chap. 6967 ; 
and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 38. 

165 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 122. 

166 Excluding receipts from loans, bond sales, and balance on hand 
from school year 1918-19. 

167 These vary in the different counties. 

168 See Biennial Reports of County Superintendents ; in Bien. Rep. of 
Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 547-769. 

169 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, pp. 17 and 124. 

170 The apportionments are made semiannually. 

171 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 7 (as amended in 
1894) ; Gen. Stats., Sec. 142, Paras. 4-5; also supra, pp. 200 and 214. 

"2 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 9. 



250 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

tioned to the different educational purposes in each of the dis- 
tricts by the board of trustees thereof ; provided, however, that 
it shall make a fair and equitable distribution of the same among 
all the schools under its supervision. ^'^^ 

Local Bonds and Indebtedness. — As already stated/'^* the 
board of county commissioners of any county, after an affirm- 
ative vote of the legal voters thereof, and upon the request of 
the county board of education, is authorized to contract debts 
for the provision of school sites and buildings, and, if necessary, 
to borrow money for the payment of the indebtedness. In ad- 
dition, when there is no money in the county school-fund for 
paying outstanding warrants, the county board of education is em- 
powered to borrow money at not exceeding eight per cent interest 
to pay the same; provided, however, that it shall not borrow in 
any one year more than eighty per cent of the amount estimated 
by it to be required for the support of the schools.^'^^ In 1919-20 
a total of $1,726,187 was borrowed by 49 of the 54 counties.^^® 

Also, as stated above,^'^* any special-tax school district may 
issue bonds for the exclusive use of public free schools ; pro- 
vided, however, that at least twenty-five per cent of the resident 
qualified electors of the district shall first petition the county 
board of education for the privilege of issuing such bonds, 
setting forth in their petition the amount of bonds desired 
and the purposes thereof ; provided, further, that the county 
board shall determine the amount of bonds required, the rate 
of interest to be paid thereon, and the time when the principal 
and interest shall become due ; and provided, still further, that 
a majority of the votes cast at the election ordered by the board 

^''s See Gen. Stats., Sec. 409. 

!''■* See page 240. 

i'^^ See Laws of Florida, 1915, 6828. 

By an act approved May 21, 1921, the county board of education is 
empowered also " to issue and sell interest-bearing coupon warrants in a 
sum or sums not to exceed the total amount of such outstanding and un- 
paid school warrants, notes, or other evidences of debt " ; provided, how- 
ever, that such interest-bearing coupon warrants shall bear interest at a 
rate not to exceed eight per cent, and shall be issued to run for more 
than twenty years (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8548). 

1^6 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 124. 



CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 251 

shall be in favor of the bond issue. In 1919-20 the sum of 
$936,331 was raised by this means.^" 

Care of the School Revenue. — The educational funds of the 
State are entrusted to the state board of education. ^^^ The state 
treasurer, who is also the treasurer of the board, is authorized 
and directed to keep a record of the amount of money appor- 
tioned to and received by the different counties from these 
sources ; ^^^ and all officers having moneys which by law belong to 
such funds are required to pay the same to the said treasurer.^^° 

Prior to 191 7 the school funds of each of the counties were 
entrusted to the county treasurer, who was also the treasurer 
of the county board of public instruction. But in 191 5 a law 
was passed providing for abolishing this office in January, 191 7, 
and designating the banks of the several counties as depositories 
for the county funds. ^®^ To qualify as a depository a bank 
must (i) file with the board of county commissioners or the 
county board of public instruction, or both, a written guarantee 
to pay the same two per cent per annum on all daily balances 
of more than two thousand dollars, and four per cent per annum 
on deposits for three months or longer, and (2) give a surety 
bond, or make satisfactory deposit to the credit of the county, 
in an amount as may be determined by the boards, to be approved 
by the state comptroller, and conditioned upon the safe-keeping, 
accounting for, and paying out on demand by proper authority all 
moneys that may come into its possession. The board of com- 
missioners and the school board are required to divide the funds 
under their care and control equally among the banks which 
have met these conditions; and in case there is none, among 
those of some other county. All persons receiving or collecting 
any money payable to the county funds, and not otherwise pro- 
vided for, are required to pay the same to the bank or banks 
which have qualified as county depositories. Each bank acting 

1^'^ See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 124. 
^''^ See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 3 ; and Gen. Stats., 
Sec. 336, Para. 2 

i''^ See Gen. Stats., Sec. 319. 

^^<^Ibid.. Sec. 321. 

181 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6932. 



252 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

as a depository shall receipt in triplicate for any money coming 
into its possession — one copy to be kept by it, one to be given the 
person, and one the board, from whom the money has been re- 
ceived. It shall also keep two separate accounts for each board — 
one for daily balances and one for time deposits. The boards 
must keep an accurate record of the amount on hand, the amount 
received, the amount spent, and the balance at the end of each 
month for every fund carried by them, and never draw a cher' 
or warrant in excess of the daily balance account. All moneys 
drawn from any depository must be upon checks or warrants 
signed by the chairman of the board issuing the same, and at- 
tested by the clerk or secretary of the said board with the cor- 
porate seal thereof affixed. Each bank is directed to file at the 
end of every month with the board or boards for which it is 
a depository a report regarding the funds placed therein. Each 
board is also directed to prepare and publish a monthly state- 
ment in regard to the funds under its control. And finally, all 
accounts, both of the banks and the boards, shall at all times be 
subject to the inspection and examination of the county auditor, 
the state auditor, and the state comptroller, or persons designated 
by him. 



CHAPTER XI 

RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST 
I. Public Education in Retrospect 

The outline of the present pubUc-school system which has just 
been given, together with the account of the growth of pubhc 
education in the preceding chapters, serves to show how far 
the State has progressed in educational ideals and practices, and 
affords many reasons for encouragement. Let us indulge for 
a while in retrospect, and notice the main characteristics of its 
educational experience. 

First Attempts at Public Education. — Prior to 1845, while 
Florida was still a territory, there were several efforts toward 
public education, the most important perhaps being the enactment 
of legislation in 1839 looking to the establishment of public 
schools. However, no centralized control was provided. There 
was also practically no provision for their support other than 
the income accruing from the federal land grants, and in most 
instances this was " shamefully neglected or criminally squan- 
dered " by those authorized and directed to care for and control 
the same. Consequently, very few schools were established, the 
principal result being to arouse the people to a slight appreciation 
at least of the value of public education. 

Beginnings of the Public-School System. — During the period 
1845-60, a number of attempts were made in the direction of 
providing a system of schools for the entire State, the chief 
ones being as follows : the creation of a state school-fund ; 
the authorization of a county school-tax, the maximum amount 
levied being four dollars for each child of school age ; the pro- 
vision for an ex officio state superintendent of schools, also an 
ex officio superintendent and board of education for each county,, 
and for three trustees in each school district ; the establishment 
of two seminaries, which had as their main object the training 
of teachers. As a result, considerable progress was made, es- 

253 



254 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

pecially in establishing free public schools, in getting the children 
to attend, and in awakening popular interest in education. Had 
it not been for the Civil War, this progress would doubtless 
have continued. As it was, practically all public-school efforts 
were brought to an end. 

Inauguration of the Present System. — The present educational 
system of Florida was inaugurated under the constitution of 
1868 and the school law of 1869, the principal provisions of 
which being the following: the creation of a permanent state 
school- fund; the provision for an annual state school-tax of 
one mill on the dollar of all taxable property ; the requirement 
that each county should raise for the support of schools not less 
than half the amount apportioned to it from the state school- 
fund; the appointment, by the governor, of a state superin- 
tendent of public instruction; the provision for a state board 
of education, consisting of the superintendent, secretary of state, 
and attorney general; the appointment, by the governor and the 
state board of education, respectively, of a superintendent and 
board of public instruction for each of the counties ; the appoint- 
ment, by the different county boards, of not more than five trus- 
tees for each school district ; the examination of teachers by 
the county boards of public instruction, the certification of them 
by the county boards and the state superintendent, and the ap- 
pointment of the same by the county boards on the approval of 
the local trustees ; the requirement that negro children should be 
given educational advantages equal to those of the white, and 
that every county should maintain a school or schools for not 
less than three months in each year in order to receive its part 
of the state revenue for the support of free public schools. 

Progress of the System, 1868-84. — Considering the inimical 
conditions under which the present public-school system was 
created, the chief ones being the apathy and poverty of the 
people and the lack of competent teachers and suitable school 
plants, the progress thereof from the very first was rather en- 
couraging. By 1884 all the educational hindrances had been 
partially overcome; a county school-tax ranging from two and 
one-half to four mills on the dollar of all taxable property had 
been required by law; a few high schools and 1,504 common 
schools had been established; the average length of the school 



RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST 255 

term had been increased to 82 days, and the average daily at- 
tendance to about 43 per cent of the school population; county 
teachers' institutes of one or more days in length, teacher- 
training courses in most of the secondary and some of the 
best elementary schools, a normal department in both the sem- 
inaries, and a colored normal school of one month's duration 
had been organized; a state college, and also a school for the 
blind and deaf-mutes, had been inaugurated. In other words, 
Florida had laid the foundation at least for a real system of 
universal education. 

Reorganisation and Advancement, 1884-^2. — During the years 
from 1884 to 1892, inclusive, there were several changes in the 
public-school system, the chief of which being as follows : the 
addition of the governor and state treasurer to the state board 
of education; the election of the state and county superinten- 
dents of public instruction by the qualified voters ; the reduction 
in the number of members in the several county boards of edu- 
cation, the limit being reduced from five to three; the adoption 
of the county unit of organization for the administration of 
schools; the appointment, b}^ the various county boards, of one 
supervisor for each school to take the place of the old local 
school-board of five members; the provision for special-tax 
school districts, and for the election of three school trustees for 
each district; the authorization of a district school-tax of three 
mills, and also the requirement of a county school-tax of from 
three to five mills, on the dollar of all taxable property; the 
requirement that the county boards of education should prepare 
the elementary courses of study in their respective counties; the 
delegation to them of the sole authority in the appointment of 
teachers ; and the provision for county high schools and two 
state normals. 

During this period there was also considerable advancement 
in public education. For example, the annual free-school ex- 
penditure was nearly doubled, this increase being much greater 
than that of the total population or the wealth of the State ; a 
few additional high schools and 270 common schools were in- 
stituted; the average length of the school term was increased 
to approximately 100 days, and the average daily attendance to 



256 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

about 46 per cent of the school pppulation; better and more 
adequate school plants were provided, the total value of the 
school property being increased more than 150 per cent; more 
suitable curricula were offered ; a larger and more efficient teach- 
ing force was secured; two state normals — one for white and 
one for negro students — ' were inaugurated ; and the four state 
educational institutions already established — the two seminaries, 
the state college, and the school for the blind and deaf-mutes — 
were considerably improved. 

The Educational Awakening, i8g2-iQ2i. — But since 1892 there 
have been some very important changes in the school system of the 
State, the principal ones being: the appointment, by the state 
board of education, of a state board of examiners, which has 
almost complete control in the matter of examining and certifi- 
cating teachers ; the election of the county school-board members 
by popular vote; the fixing of the maximum county school-tax 
at ten instead of seven mills on the dollar; the authorization 
of an additional district school-tax of five mills on the dollar 
whenever bonds have been issued for the exclusive use of pub- 
lic schools; the apportionment of the state free-school revenue 
to the different counties on the school-attendance rather than 
the school-population basis ; the provision of compulsory school- 
attendance for all children of the State between seven and six- 
teen years of age; the adoption of uniform textbooks for the 
elementary and high schools; the furnishing of free textbooks, 
by the county boards of education, to indigent children of their 
respective counties; the adoption of the uniform elementary- 
and high-school courses of study formulated by the state de- 
partment of education; the provision for medical inspection of 
school children ; the providing of better facilities for the training 
of teachers; the inauguration of state elementary- and high- 
school supervision; the promotion of the teaching of vocational 
education; the provision for two state reform schools — one 
for boys and one for girls; the authorization of the county 
boards to establish and maintain kindergartens; the merging 
of all the institutions of higher learning into two, — one for 
men and one for women — and placing them under the direction 
of a state board of five members. 



RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST 257 

Since then there has also taken place a remarkably rapid ad- 
vance along all educational lines. More efficient school officers 
and teachers have been secured; the annual free-school expen- 
diture has been increased 1,192 per cent, this increase being 
more than ten times as fast as that of the school population; 
the number of common schools has been considerably augmented, 
and one or more good high schools have been established in 
every county; the average length of the school term has been 
increased to 133 days; more suitable school plants have been 
provided; the elementary- and high-school curricula have been 
made much broader and richer; and all the state educational 
institutions — the school for the blind and deaf-mutes, the two 
reform schools, and the three institutions of higher learning — 
have been greatly improved. 

Some Results Actually Achieved since i8yy. — As pointed out, 
there has been a constant progress in public education ever since 
the inauguration of the present system. However, since 1877 — 
the year following the close of the reconstruction government 
in Florida — 'this progress has been quite marked. The six 
sets of figures given in Table XXVIII, below, reveal in a con- 
vincing manner some of the achievements. 

II. Public Education in Prospect 

For this rapid progress in public education, especially during 
the last two decades, the Floridians may well congratulate them- 
selves, and from it gather courage. However, they should not 
fail to take cognizance of the fact that there are still many 
hard, though glorious, educational tasks which lie before them, 
a few of which we shall notice. 

Some Unfinished Tasks. — In 1917-18 — the latest year for 
which statistics of the various state school systems are available 
— 'the per cent of the children in the United States from 5 to 
18 years of age enrolled in public elementary and secondary 
schools was 75.3, while in Florida it was 72.9; the per cent in 
daily attendance was 56.2 and 50.9, respectively; the number 
attending daily for each 100 enrolled, 74.6 and 69.9 ; the average 
number of days the schools were in session, 160.7 ^^d 130; 
the average number of days attended by each child from 5 to 
18 years of age, 90.2 and 66.2; the average number of days 
attended by each child enrolled, 119.8 and 90.9; the per cent 



258 



PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 



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RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST 259 

of the total school enrollment in secondary schools, 9.3 and 5.4; 
the per cent of rural-school buildings having only one room, 
jd and 80; the value of all school property for each pupil en- 
rolled, $95.12 and $54.06; the average expenditure, for current 
expenses, per pupil enrolled, $30.91 and $18.82; the average 
expenditure, for current expenses, per pupil attending daily, 
$41.45 and $26.93; ^iid the average annual salary for teachers, 
$635 and $383.=^ 

The figures for that year also show that there were 32 states 
with a larger per cent of the children between 5 and 18 years old 
enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools than Florida 
had; 35 with a larger per cent of them in daily attendance; 
31 with a larger number attending daily for each 100 enrolled; 
43 with a longer school term; 42 with a larger average number 
of days attended by each child between 5 and 18 years old; 41 
with a larger average number of days attended by each child 
enrolled; 37 with a larger per cent of the total school enroll- 
ment in secondary schools ; 2^ with a smaller per cent of one- 
room rural school buildings ; 35 with a larger amount of money 
invested in school property for each pupil enrolled ; 35 with 
a larger average expenditure, for current expenses, per pupil 
enrolled; 35 with a larger average expenditure, for current ex- 
penses, per pupil attending daily; and 40 with a larger average 
annual salary for teachers.^ 

Furthermore, during that year, the number of public free 
schools in Florida for negro children was only 837, or less than 
30 per cent of the total number,* though the negro children of 
school age'' constituted nearly 40 per cent of the total school 
population. The per cent of the negro school population enrolled 
in the public elementary and secondary schools was only 50; 
and the per cent in daily attendance, 35. The average length 
of the school term was but 102 days ; the average number of days 
attended by each negro child of school age, 35.7; and the average 
number of days attended by each 100 enrolled, 71.4. The number 

2 For the figures of this paragraph see Bull, of U. S. Bu. of Ed., 
1920, No. II, pp. 8, ID, 14, 42, 46, 47, 67, 69, and 108. 

3 For the figures of this paragraph see Bull, of U. S. Bu. of Ed., 
1920, No. II, pp. 8, ID, 14, 42, 46, 47, 67, 69, and 108. 

^There were but 4 negro high schools, the total enrollment of which 
was only 226 (see Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 613). 
5 From 6 to 21 years. 



260 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

of negro teachers employed was but 1,288, or about one-fifth of 
the total number; and nearly one-half of these held only third- 
class certificates, representing preparation less than that usually 
given in the eighth grade. The value of the negro school property 
was only $725,457, or less than 7 per cent of the total value. The 
amount spent for negro education was but $443,600, this being 
about 5 per cent of the total expenditure, and but $3.59 for each 
negro child of school age. And finally, the average annual salary 
for negro teachers was only about $i8i.*' 

As is patent from the three foregoing paragraphs, there is yet 
much to be done before it can be said that Florida has one of 
the best public-school systems in the United States.'^ The facts 
stated therein show that there are indeed some grave educational 
tasks confronting the people of the State. 

A Promising Future. — But in spite of its many shortcomings, 
public education in Florida has, as Dr. W. N. Sheats has said,* 
" a most gratifying outlook." In fact, there is probably no depart- 
ment of historical life that is capable of giving the people as great 
encouragement to take a hopeful view of the future as the history 
of their public-school system. A backward glance over the way 
along which public education has come reveals three progressive 
features that have been more or less prominent from the be- 
ginning : first, the extension of centralized control ; second, the 
humanization of the curricula; and third, the expansion of the 
public-school system in ever-widening circles of the population. 
Judging from these and other evidences of advance, particularly 
during the last few years, and also from the increase in the 
school funds, the recent growth of popular interest in the schools, 
and the progressive educational legislation recently enacted, there 
is every reason to believe that a new era of educational pros- 
perity has dawned, and that within the next quarter of a century 
or less Florida will rank among the leading states of the Union 
in matters of public education. 

8 The figures of this paragraph are found in tables xiii, xiv, xvii, xviii, 
XXV, and xxvi, on pages 113, 116, 173, 180, 197, and 199, above, or com- 
puted from the figures found therein. 

"^ In 1917-18 three-fourths of the states, according to an investigation 
by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, had a more efficient public-school system (see 
his An Index Number for State School Systems, p. 49). 

8 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 18. 



LIST OF REFERENCES 

I. Primary Sources 

Beard, John. Annual Report of the Register of Public Lands 
and State Superintendent of Common Schools, in House Jour- 
nal, 1850-51, appendix, p. 51; also in Senate Journal, appen- 
dix, p. 12. 

Bonner, H. R. Statistics of State School Systems, igiy-i8. 
Bulletin, 1920, No. 11, of the United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation. 

Bush, Allen H. A Digest of the Statute Law of Florida. Tal- 
lahassee, Charles H. Walton, State Printer, 1872. 

Catalogues of the State Educational Institutions, 1905 to date. 

Constitutions of the State of Florida, 1845, 1861, 1865, and 1885. 

Corley, Hugh H. State Register's Report, i860, in Senate Jour- 
nal, 1860-61, appendix, pp. 9-12. 

Corley, Hugh H. State Register s Report, 1865, in House Jour- 
nal, 1865-66, appendix, p. 8; also in Senate Journal, appen- 
dix, p. 8. 

Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools of Florida 
(rearranged edition; authorized by Chap. 7910, Acts of 
1919). Tallahassee, Department of Education, 1919. 

Directory of Florida School Officers, High Schools and Other 
Educational Institutions, ipip. Tallahassee, T. J. Appleyard, 
Printer. 

Duncan, E. B. Report of the Superintendent of Common 
Schools for Freedmen, 1866, in Senate Journal, 1865-66, 
appendix, 

Duval, John P. Compilation of the Public Acts of the Legis- 
lative Council of the Territory of Florida prior to 1840. Tal- 
lahassee, Samuel B. Sibley, Printer, 1839. 

General Statutes of the State of Florida (prepared under author- 
ity of, and adopted by, the legislature), pp. 257-89. St. 
Augustine, The Record Company, 1906. 

261 



262 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

Holloway, State Superintendent W. M. Digest of the School 
Laws of the State of Florida with the Forms, Regulations, 
and Instructions of the Department of Education. Tallahas- 
see, T. J, Appleyard, State Printer, 191 1. 

Hood, William R., Weeks, S. B., and Ford, A. S. Digest of 
State Laws Relating to Public Education. Bulletin, 1915, 
No, 47, of the United States Bureau of Education. 

House and Senate Journals, 1832 to date. 

Journal of the Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention 
of the State of Florida, 1868. Tallahassee, Edward M. Che- 
ney, Printer, 1868. 

Journal of the Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of 
the State of Florida, 188 j. Tallahassee, N. M. Bowen, State 
Printer, 1885. 

Laws Relating to Common Schools in the State of Florida 
(printed by order of the general assembly). Tallahassee, 
Dyke and Carlisle, i860. 

McClellan, James F. A Digest of the Laws of the State of 
Florida, 1822-81. Tallahassee, The Floridian Book and Job 
Office, 1 88 1. 

Messages of the Governor, 1832 to date, in House and Senate 
Journals. 

Regulations of the Department of Public Instruction, 1889 to 
date. 

Reports of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1869 
to date. 

Reports of the State Treasurer, 1845 to date. 

Reports of the State High-School Inspector, 1910 to date. 

Report of the Commission on Accredited Schools of the Associ- 
ation of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern 
State, in The High School Quarterly (Athens, Georgia), 
April, 1919. 

Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1870 
to date. 

Reports of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 1917 
to date. 

Session Laws, 1828 to date. 



LIST OF REFERENCES 263 

Sheats, State Superintendent W, N. Digest of the School Laws 
of the State of Florida with the Regulations of the State 
Board of Education and the Instructions and Forms of the 
Department of Education. Tallahassee, T, J, Appleyard, State 
Printer, 19 15. 

Sheats, State Superintendent W. N. A Compilation of the Laws 
Relating to Education Enacted by the Florida Legislature of 
ipiy and 1919. 

Standard Course of Study for the Public High Schools of Flor- 
ida, with an Advisory Course of Study for Rural Schools 
(a pamphlet prepared by the high-school commission provided 
for in laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5206, Sec. 8). 

States Regulations Service Document 40 (Revised January i, 
1919). Washington, Government Printing Ofifice, 1919. 

Thompson, Leslie A. A Manual or Digest of the Statute Law 
of Florida, of a General and Public Character (digested and 
arranged under and in pursuance of an act of the general 
assembly, approved December 10, 1845). Boston, Charles C. 
Little and James Brown, 1847. 

Thorpe, Francis Newton. The Federal and State Constitutions, 
Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws (compiled and 
edited under the act of Congress of June 30, 1906), II, 664-85. 
Washington, Government Printing Office, 1909. 

United States Census Reports, 1840-1910. 

United States Statutes at Large, III, 654 and 756; IV, 201-02; 
V, 550 and 742; XXIV, 440; XXVI, 417; XXXIV, 1281 ; and 
XXXVIII, 372. 

Walker, David S. Report of the Register of Public Lands and 
Superintendent of Common Schools, 1852, in House Journal, 
1852-53, appendix, pp. 111-17; also in Senate Journal, appen- 
dix, pp. 111-17. 

Walker, David S. Report of the Register of Public Lands and 
Superintendent of Common Schools, 1854, in House Journal, 
1854-55, appendix, pp. 6-8; also in Senate Journal, appendix, 
pp. 6-8. 

Walker, David S. Report of the Register of Public Lands and 
Superintendent of Common Schools, 1856, in House Journal, 
1856-57, appendix, pp. 12-13; also in Senate Journal, appen- 
dix, pp. 12-13. 



264 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 

Walker, David S. Report of the Register of Public Lands and 
Superintendent of Common Schools, i8j8, in House Journal, 
1858-59, appendix, pp. 14-18; also in Senate Journal, appen- 
dix, pp. 14-18. 

II. Secondary Sources 

American Annals of Education and Instruction (published by 
Allen and Ticknor, Boston, I, 225 and 328; also II, 94-96 
and 239. 

Ayres, Leonard P. An Index Number for State School Systefns. 
New York, The Russell Sage Foundation, 1920. 

Barnard, Henry. American Journal of Education, XVI, 381 ; 
XVII, 112-13; XIX, 33^39; XXIV, 158, 164, 240, 249, 
and 715; XXVII, 335; XXIX, 36-37. 

Blackmar, Frank W, The History of Federal and State Aid 
to Higher Education in the United States. Circular of in- 
formation, No. I, 1890, of the United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation. 

Bowker, Richard Rogers. The Library List (being a list of 
public libraries in the United States and in Canada of over 
1,000 volumes, with classification by size and name of libra- 
rian). New York, Office of the Library Journal, 1887. 

Brevard, Caroline Mays, and Bennett, H. E. A History of 
Florida, with Questions, Supplementary Chapters, and an 
Outline of Florida Civil Government, pp. 226-31 and 252-54. 
New York, American Book Company, 1919. 

Bush, George Cary. History of Education in Florida. Circular 
of Information, No. 7, 1888, of the United States Bureau of 
Education. 

Capen, Samuel P. Accredited Secondary Schools in the United 
States. Bulletin, 191 6, No. 20, of the United States Bureau 
of Education. 

Cubberley, Ellwood P. "State of Florida," in Monroe's Cy- 
clopaedia of Education, II, 620-23. New York, The Mac- 
millan Company, 1911-13. 

Dexter, Edwin Grant. A History of Education in the United 
States, pp. 96 and 138-39. New York, The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1914. 



LIST OF REFERENCES 265 

Donaldson, Thomas Corwin. The Public Domain; Its History, 
with Statistics to June 30 and December i, 1883 (prepared 
in pursuance of the acts of Congress of March 3, 1879, 
June 16, 1880, and August 7, 1882), Chap,. XIII. Washing- 
ton, Government Printing Office, 1884. 

Green, Edwin L. School History of Florida, pp. 279-80, 321, 
a41:L 331-32. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins Company, 
1898. 

Mayo, A, D. " The American Common School in the Southern 
States during the first Half Century of the Republic, 1790- 
1840," in Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, i8p3-p6. Vol. I. 

Mayo, A. D. " Original Establishment of State School Funds," 
in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 
1894-95, Vol. II. 

Mayo, A. D. " The Organization and Development of the 
American Common School in the Atlantic and Central States 
of the South, 1 830-1 860," in Report of the United States 
Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, Vol. I. 

Mayo, A. D. "Common School Education in the South from 
Beginning of Civil War to 1876," in Report of the United 
States Commissioner of Education, 1900-1901, Vol. I. 

Rerick, Rowland H. Memoirs of Florida, Vol. I. Atlanta, The 
Southern Historical Association, 1902. 

Sheats, State Superintendent W. N. History of the Origin and 
Growth of Public Schools in Florida, in Biennial Report of 
the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1892-94, pp. 5-63. 

Swift, Fletcher Harper. A History of Public Permanent Com- 
mon School Funds in the United States, 1195-1905. New 
York, Henry Holt and Company, 191 1. 



INDEX 



Academies, early, 12-13 ; statistics 
(1840, 1850, i860), 27. See Pri- 
vate schools. 

Administration of schools, 24-26, 63, 
(>S, 90-92, 210-11. 

Administrative control and supervi- 
sion, general, at present, 213-24. 

Administrative unit, 63, 92, 221. 

Age limits, 224. 

Agricultural education, 106, 107, 
147-48, 164. 

Agricultural experiment station, 157, 
164. 

American Annals of Education and 
Instruction, 2, 3, 4. 

American Journal of Education, 29 
note, 30 note, 31 note. 

Attendance, school, number, 27, 77, 
108, 112, 113, 258; place, 226. 

Apportionment of school funds. See 
School funds, apportionment, 

Bartoff, John R, 67. 

Beard, John, 18, 22. 

Beecher, Charles, 49, 56, 69, 77. 

Benevolent associations, work of, 29, 

33, SO, SI, 54- 

Bennett, H. E., 126, 181. 

Bibliography. See References, list 
of. 

Blind and deaf-mutes, school for, 
104-06, 149-50, 238. 

Blount, W. A., 126. 

Bloxham, Governor, 88 note, 104. 

Board of commissioners of state in- 
stitutions, 176, 241. 

Bonds and indebtedness, local, 

250-51. 
Buckman Act, 162, 182. 
Buildings, grounds, and equipment, 

65-67, 92-94, 170-72, 239-41, 

Caldwell, William, 105. 
Call, Governor, 7. 
Cater, Edwin P., 97, 154. 
Cawthon, W. S., 195 note. 
Census, school, 60-61, 211, 224-25. 
Chase, C. Thurston, 29, 46, 47, 49, 
SO, 51, 53, 56, 69. 



Civil War, public education during, 
28. _ 

Commercial education, 140-41. 

Commission for preparation of state 
curriculum, 118. 

Compton, John C., 170. 

Compulsory attendance, 112, 114, 
227-29. 

Conference of county superintend- 
ents and other school officers 
state, 38, 92, 112, 126, 214. 

Consolidation of schools, 229. 

Consolidation of special-tax school- 
districts, 222-23. 

Constitution of 1845, educational 
provisions, 15-16; of 1868, 34-36, 
47-48; of 1885, 79-84, 109. 

Corley, Hugh H., 27. 

County boards of public instruction, 
20, 33, 39-40, 48, 52, 61, 63, 85, 
91-92, 210-11, 219-21. 

County superintendents of public in- 
struction, 17, 20-21, 32, 40, 48, 52, 
59, 62-63, 82-83, 92, 211, 218-19. 

Courses of study, 67-69, 94-95, 
I 15-21, 122, 123-31, 230-37. 

Crenshaw, A., 67, 71. 

Cushman, Miss Lucy C, 216 note. 

Daily Herald, 83. 
Davis, Miss Lumie B., 151 note. 
Day, school, meaning of, 227. 
DeLand, H. A., loi note. 
Denominational schools, loo-ioi. 
Districts, school. See School dis- 
tricts. 
Drew, Governor, 59, 63. 

Eagan, Superintendent, 71. 

East Florida Seminary, 51, 74-75, 

97, 102, 153-54, 158. 
Eaton, John, 46. 
Education in other states, influence 

of, 209-10. 
Education in the Territory, condition 

Educational administration and su- 
pervision, improvement in, influ- 
ence of, 210-11. 



266 



INDEX 



267 



Educational campaigns, 112, 114. 

Educational legislation, early, 5-9; 
first, for establishment of schools 
(1839), 8; of 1849, 16-18; of 1853, 
19-22; of 1869, 36-46; of 1889, 
84-88, 109-10; a factor in the 
public-school awakening, 205-06. 

Educational organization, under con- 
stitution of 1868, 35-36; under 
school law of 1869, 37-41; (1868- 
84), 58-63; under school law of 
1889,84-88; (1884-92). 90-91. 

Educational progress, evidences of 
(1868-84), 76-78. 

Educational status of pupils (1892- 
1920), 113; (1877-1920), 258. 

Emerson, J. C, 66. 

Enrollment, school, 12 note, 27, T], 
108, 112, 113, 124, 258. 

Environment and equipment of 
schools, under school law of 1869, 
41-42. 

Expenditures, school, 56, 89, 124, 198, 
199, 258. 

Farm-demonstration agents, 148. 
Federal aid, i, 5, 9 note, 16, So, 54, 

55, 152, 153, 156, 158 note, 208. 
Felkel, Henry N., 71, 97, 105. 
Five percent fund, 18. 
Florida Agricultural College, 98-99, 

155-58, 159-61. 
Florida Agricultural and Mechanical 

College for Negroes, 167-68, 194 

note. 
Florida Association for the Promo- 
tion of the Education of the Deaf 

and Blind, 106. 
Florida Conference College, loi 

note. 
Florida Education Society, 1-2, 4. 
Florida Industrial School for Boys, 

159-51- 
Florida Industrial School for Girls, 

Florida Normal and Business Insti- 
tute, lOI. 

Florida State College for Women, 
165-67, 182, 194. 

Florida University, 157. 

Foster, Eleazar K., 49, 56, 61, 6t, 
69, 76, 104. 

Franklin County School, 12. 

Freedmen's Bureau, 30, 55. 

Free textbooks, 178-79, 242. 

Future, promising, 2(5o. 

General Education Board, 163 note, 
194-95, 208. 



Gibbs, Jonathan C, 49, 56, 67. 
Graham, John A., 97. 
Graves, John Temple, 83. 
Gray, Charles H., 177. 
Guilliams, J. M., 100 note. 
Guisinger, Jos. E., 182. 

Haisley, William P., 49, 56, 61, 62, 
68, 74, 75- 

Halliday, S. R, 66, 71. 

Holloway, W. M., 212. 

Hatch Act, 157, 208 note. 

Haynie, E. A., 216 note. 

Health conditions, 172, 174-75, 241. 

Higher and professional education 
before 1892, 152-58; (1892-1905), 
158-62 ; since 1905, 162-68, 239. 

High-school commission, 126-27. 

High schools, 102-04, 121-39; classi- 
fication, 132 note ; courses of study, 
123, 125-31; enrollment, 124; ex- 
penditures, 124; number, 122, 123, 
124; on Florida accredited list, 
131-35; on Southern accredited 
Hst, 135-39; value, 122, 123, 124. 
See Secondary education. 

Hindrances to universal education 
(186&-84), 53-76. 

Home-demonstration agents, 144. 

Home-economics work, 106-08, 140, 
143-47, 166. 

Holidays, school, 227. 

Home, W. T., 177. 

Industrial education, 107-08, 140, 

141-43, 164, 165. 
Inspectors, school, state, 194-96, 217- 

18. 
Isler, H. H., 177- 

Jasper Normal Institute, 100 note. 
Journals, educational, 196. 

Kindergartens, 151-52, 238-39. 
Kost, John, 157 note. 

Laws, school. See Educational leg- 
islation. 

Leadership, educational, a factor in 
the public-school awakening, 211- 
12. 

Lynch, George M., 195. 

McClane, Frank E., 151 note. 
McDonald, Miss Christian, 195 note. 
McLin, Samuel B., 49, 56, 62, 64, 

70-71, 73, 76. 
Manual-labor school, Tallahassee, 3- 

5- 



268 



INDEX 



Mayo, A. D., 13. 

Military training, 237. 

Monroe County School, 12. 

Month, school, meaning of, 227. 

Moore, Marshall, 177. 

Morrill Fund, aid from, 156, 158 

note, 208. 
Moseley, Governor, 11, 16 
Murphree, A. A., 163. 

Nashville University, 74, 97. 
Negro education, before 1865, 29 ; 

legal provision for, in 1866, 29-30;' 

schools, 30-31; statistics of (1865- 

68), 31. 
Normal schools, 75, 81, 97-98, 99- 

100, 158, 181. 

Officers, school, present, 213. 
Orange College, loi note. 
Organization, educational. See Edu- 
cational legislation. 

Part-time schools, 239. 

Peabody Educational Fund, 55, y^i, 

74, 97, 193 note, 209. 
Perry, Governor, 88 note 
Philips, Shelton, 195 note, 216 note. 
Popular interest in education, 26^27, 

57, 90, 203-05. 
Population, school, 23-24, 27, 77, 

108, 113. 
Population, total, 72, 108, 202. 
Population, white (1850), 22 note 
Price, T. W., 171. 
Private appropriations, 30, SO, 52, 54, 

104, 153, 154, 163 note, 208. 
Private schools, 51, 100-102. See 

Academies ; also Denominational 

schools. 
Property, assessed value of, 90, 202. 
Property, school, value of, 68, 93, 

122, 123, 124, 173. 
Prospect, 257-^60. 
Public education, first attempts at, 

1-14, 253; gains to (1822-45), 

11-13; in 1868, 49-50. 
Public school, rise of, 1-33. 
PubHc Schools, classification of, 

229-30; number of, 12 note, 27, 

68, 93, 116, 123, 124, 131, 139, 258. 
Public-school awakening (1892- 

1921), 111-201, 256-57; some fac- 
tors favoring, 202-12. 
Public-school system, beginning of, 

15-33, 253-54; lesults of (1845- 

68), 22-28; work of (1868-84), 



49-78, 254-55; progress of (1884- 
92), 79-110, 255-56; results since 
1877, 257, 258. 
Public-school system, present, estab- 
lishment of, 34-48, 254; extent of, 
229; outline of, 213-52. 

Quigley, T. H., 216 note. 

Reed, Governor, 29, 2^. 
References, list of, 261-65. 
Reform schools, 150-51, 238. 
Retrospect, 253-60. 
Revival, educational, under Chase 

(186&-70), 50-53- 
Rollins College, loi note. 
Russell, Albert J., 49, 56, 76, 84, 88, 

93, 97, 105, 107, 108, 109. 

St. Johns Conference College, loi 
note. 

St. Johns and Mosquito counties, 
educational status of, 2-3. 

St. Johns and Mosquito County 
Society, 2. 

St. Petersburg Normal and Indus- 
trial School, 140, 141, 144, 161-62, 
182. 

School-attendance officers, 223-24, 
225, 228. 

School districts, 81, 82; special, 86, 
222. 

School-fund, county, 80, 228 note. 

School-fund, state, amount, 56, 89; 
composition, 18, 19, j,2, 34-35, 54, 
80; first established (1848), 16; 
income, 19, 24-25, 52 ; provision 
for investing, 18-19, 32, 79, 251; 
spent during Civil War, 50. 

School funds, apportionment of, 17, 
18, 19, 20, 35, 2,^, 38, 45, 80, 200, 
214, 249-50; present sources, 248- 
49; provision for safe-keeping, 37, 
30, 80, 251-52. 

S c h o o 1-improvement associations, 
114. 

School laws. See Educational legis- 
lation. 

School records and reports, county, 
59- 92. 

School statistics (1840, 1850, and 
i860), 27; (1869-84), 56, 59, 60, 
68, 77; (1884-92), 89, 91, 93, 96, 
108; (1892-1920), 113, 116, 124, 
138, 173, 180, 185, 187. 188, 196, 
197, 199, 204; (1877-1920), 258. 



INDEX 



269 



School supervision, county, 211; 

local, 85-87, 211, 221, 223; state, 

163, 194-96, 218. 
School system, legal organization of, 

in 1845, lo-ii. 
School taxation, county, 19, 25, 26, 

2,2, 35, 26, 52, 5^58, 80, 81, 87, 90, 

198, 200, 203-05, 248; district, 81, 

82, 87, 198, 204, 248-49; state, 35, 

36, 39-40, 80, 81, 248. 
School term, length of, yj, 108, 113, 

197, 226, 258; meaning of, 227; 

time of, 226. 
School treasurer, county, 61-62, 86; 

local, 8; state, ^y, 85, 214. 
School trustees, local, 8-9, 10, 14, 16, 

20, 21 note, 32, 41, 81, 82, 86-87, 

223. 
Secondary education, extension of, 

121-22; means for extending. 122- 

23; present advantages, 131-39; in 

school law of 1869, 44; in school 

law of 1889, 85. , 
Seminary fund, 15, 50, 52. 
Seminary lands, 15, 152. 
Separate schools for negroes, 81, 83, 

225. 
Sheats, W. N., 83 note, 97, 99, 102, 

106, 117, 121, 122, 171, 175, 186, 

195, 198, 200, 212. 
Sixteenth-section lands, i, 5-9, 11-12, 

16. 
Skipworth, J. L., loi. 
Slater Fund, 107. 
Smith-Hughes Act, 215. 
Smith-Hughes Fund, aid from, 142 

note, 145 note, 208. 
Smith-Lever Act, 164. 
Smith-Lever Fund, aid from, 168, 

208 note. 
South Florida Military College, 161. 
Southern Education Board, 195, 208. 
State aid, 18, 19, 50, 80, 81, 97 note, 

loi, 104, 161-62, 181-82, 183, 186, 

193-96, 206-09, 238, 248. 
State board of control, 193, 216-17. 
State board of education, 35, 2>6, 

37-38, 47, 48, 79, 82, 8S, 183, 214- 

State board of examiners, 217. 

State board for vocational educa- 
tion, 215-16. 

State Normal College for Colored 
Students, 99, loo, 102. 

State Normal College for White 
Students, 99-100, 102. 

State superintendent of public in- 
struction, 17, 20, 32, 34, 3^39, 47. 
59, 79, 82, 213-14. 



State superintendents of public in- 
struction (1868-84), 49, 56. 

Stearns, Governor, 67. 

Summer schools, 164, 166, 168, 192- ' 
94, 196- 

Supervision, school. See School su- 
pervision. 

Support of schools, 19, 24-26, 34-35, 
26, 44-46, 53-58, 8(^82, 87, 88-90, 
197-200, 248-50. 

Surplus revenue, 9 note. 

Suspension from school, 226. 

System of instruction, under school 
law of 1869, 43-44; (1884-92), 
102-09; since 1892, 11 1-69. 

Taxation, school. See School taxa- 
tion. 

Teachers, appointment, 21, 39, 85, 
220, 245-46; duties and powers, 
general, 43, 247; examination and 
certification, 17, 39, 42, 95 note, 
188-92, 217, 242-45; experience, 
180; number, 96, 116, 122, 123, 124, 
180, 258; qualification, 72-73, 95- 
96, 122, 123, 124, 180; tenure, 245- 
46; training, 72-7(>, 96-102, 179- 
88, 192-96, 247. 

Teachers' associations, county, 113, 
192; state, 113, 192, 196. 

Teaching force, under law of 1869, 
42-43; (1868-84), 72-76) (1884- 
92), 95-102; since 1892, 179-97. 

Teachers' institutes, 75-76, 192-93. 

Teachers' salaries, 77, ig7, 258. 

Teacher-training departments, 
county, 183--88; in non-state 
schools, 100-102, 188; in the state 
institutions, 163, 164, 165, 167. 

Terrell, Park, 104. 

Textbook commission, state, 176-78, 
241-42. 

Textbook sub-commission, 176, 178, 
241. 

Textbooks used, 69-72, 175-79, 241- 
42. 

Thackston, John A., 195 note. 

Transportation of pupils, 112, 113- 
14, 116, 229. 

Treasurer, school. See School treas- 
urer. 

Turner, R. L., 195 note. 

Unfinished tasks, 257-60. 
Uniformity of textbooks, 70-72, 175- 

79, 241-42. 
University of Florida, 159, 162-65, 

182, 194. 



270 INDEX 

Vocational education, 106-07, 140- West Florida Seminary, 51, 74-75, 
49, 164, 167, 168, 215-16, 237. 97, 102, 154-55, 158-59- 

Walker, David S., 23, 25, 26, 31- Year, school, meaning of, 227. 

Wentworth, James H., 66. 



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